1. Reyner Banham, "A Black Box: The Secret Profession of Architecture," New Statesman , Oct. 12, 1990, 25.

2. Schön identifies twelve normative design domains, which "contain the names of elements, features, relations and actions, and of norms used to evaluate problems, consequences and implications." They are: Program/Use; Siting; Building Elements; Organization of Space; Form; Structure/Technology; Scale; Cost; Building Character; Precedent; Representation; Explanation (Donald Schön, The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action [New York: Basic Books, 1984], 95-97).

3. Here, for instance, is an account of the postindustrial reorganization of production in Germany: "Complex products are increasingly conceptualized as systems continue

of subsystems, or modules. Instead of developing each subsystem itself, the final producer defines the characteristics of the product as a whole and the functional relations between the different modules of which it is composed. Whenever possible, each of these is then developed in collaboration with a system supplier who possesses the relevant technical expertise and know-how. Final assembly, however, remains the responsibility of the final producer" (Horst Kern and Charles Sabel, "Trade Unions and Decentralized Production: A Sketch of Strategic Problems in the West German Labor Movement," Politics and Society 19 [1991]: 378, [emphasis added]).

4. David Greenspan, "A Conversation at Hammond Beeby and Babka," Inland Architect, Nov.-Dec. 1985, 30.

5. Schön, Reflective Practitioner, 101.

6. William Pedersen, in Barbaralee Diamonstein, American Architecture Now II (New York: Rizzoli, 1985), 179-80 (emphasis added).

7. Cesar Pelli, "Transparency--Physical and Perceptual," A & U (Tokyo), Special issue, (1976): 78-79. Of course, Pelli can be much more technical than this. See, for instance, his interview in Skyline, May 1982, 23-24. I quote Pelli's more articulate statement in A & U rather than his more fluid comments to me in an interview conducted in Spanish.

8. It is hard to find fault with Graham's opinion that "nobody ever thought, 'well, maybe Scandinavians can live in towers, but can black people?' They never thought about the segregation they were creating, they actually thought they were doing good."

9. Stanley Tigerman, in Diamonstein, American Architecture Now II, 230.

10. Tom Wolfe, From Bauhaus to Our House (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1981), Chap. 4.

11. The architectural critic Charles Jencks made a different connection, putting the symbolic death of modernism at July 15, 1972, at 3:32 P.M.--the time at which the slabs of Pruitt-Igoe, Minoru Yamasaki's award-winning project of 1955, were dynamited in St. Louis.

12. Among the most interesting projects were Robert Stern's "Subway Suburb," an ideal plan for an abandoned and burned-out site in the East New York part of Brooklyn; St. Joseph's Village for the elderly (a competition entry); and his unbuilt winning competition for 1,000 units on Roosevelt Island in New York City. Stern's analysis of the social potential of the suburb (in which he acknowledges Stein and Henry Wright's "middle city suburbs" of Sunnyside and Forrest Hills) is extremely interesting; see Barbaralee Diamonstein, American Architecture Now (New York: Rizzoli, 1980), 245-48.

13. Kenneth Frampton's critique, "America 1960-1970: Notes on Urban Images and Theory," appeared in Casabella, Dec. 1971, 24-38. Denise Scott Brown, "Pop Off: Reply to Kenneth Frampton," 35, 37, and see also Scott Brown, "Learning from Pop," and Robert Venturi, "Learning the Right Lessons from the Beaux-Arts," all in Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown, A View from the Campidoglio: Selected Essays 1953-1984 (New York: Harper and Row, 1984). The reference to "taste culture" (or publics) is from Herbert Gans, who had a profound influence on Scott Brown and Venturi. See his Popular Culture and High Culture: An Analysis and Evaluation of Taste (New York: Basic Books, 1974). The criticism continue

of the Venturis is from Andreas Huyssen, After the Great Divide (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1986), 187.

14. Kenneth Frampton, "Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance," in Hal Foster, ed., The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture (Port Townsend, Wash.: Bay Press, 1983), 26, 21, 28.

15. Today, Krier is Prince Charles's favorite architect and architectural adviser in the hoped-for reconstruction of a "Victorian" city.

16. The project had a very limited budget and mostly black tenants. It consisted of several building types (a wall of row houses, three duplexes and one single-story apartment, a four-story apartment building for elderly tenants, and a small community center) on "twenty-five acres of cleared, hilly land located next to a commuter railroad station and a major suburban highway." The exchange took place at the symposium "Beyond the Modern Movement," organized in 1977 by the Harvard Architecture Review . See the Spring 1980 issue. Quotations on 207, 215, 216 (emphasis added).

17. Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, 2d ed. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1977), 14.

18. Robert Stern, in Diamonstein, American Architecture Now, 237.

19. This is not quite true. But when I mentioned Mies van der Rohe's still-standing, still-inhabited, still-decent 1920s housing on Berlin's Afrikaner Strasse, Johnson reemphasized form: "Oh, but that was almost retardataire !"

20. Philip Johnson, "Reflections: On Style and the International Style; On Post-modernism; On Architecture," Oppositions 10 (1977): 18.

21. In the late 1980s, Johnson was sponsoring the "deconstructive" trend. He stressed the pervasive influence of painting: Picasso and cubism inspired Le Corbusier's purism directly; passing through Malevitch's painting and Tatlin's architecture in Russia, then turning West again after "constructivism failed as a formal movement," cubism also inspired the German architects.

22. The broad view is taken from architectural historians before Pevsner's and Giedion's apologias for the Modern Movement. See Robert Stern, "The Doubles of Postmodern," Harvard Architecture Review 1 (1980): 75-87. Paradoxically, Peter Eisenman also sees all "humanist" Western architecture as theoretically continuous. In "Post-Functionalism," Oppositions 7 (1976): n.p., he relies on Levi-Strauss and Foucault to define modernism as "a sensibility based on the fundamental displacement of man." For Eisenman, architecture needs the humanist fiction of a central subject to unify, within the subject's single experience, function, and form, "a concern for internal accommodation" and "a concern for articulation of ideal themes in form." Eisenman sees modernism as two formal tendencies in dialectical tension: form as the transformation of simpler geometric ideas or Platonic solids, and form as fragments abstracted "from some pre-existent set of non-specific spatial entities" (which presumably exist in nature, the built environment, or history). Few practicing architects can follow Eisenman's theoretical sophistication, nor does he use these terms except in writing, although his abstract analysis takes in much that elite architects say in tangible form. For a cogent critique of the analogy between architecture and linguistics, see Mary McLeod, "Architecture," in Stanley Trachtenberg, ed., The Postmodern Moment: A Handbook of Contemporary Innovation in the Arts (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985). break

23. Johnson, "Reflections," 18. See Robert Venturi, "A Definition of Architecture as Shelter with Decoration on It, and Another Plea for Symbolism of the Ordinary in Architecture," in Venturi and Scott Brown, View from the Campidoglio, 62-67.

24. Vincent Scully, American Architecture and Urbanism, new rev. ed. (New York: Henry Holt, 1988), 171.

25. Quoted in Tim Loughran, "Looking at a Dixie Cup Skyline," Crain's New York Business, Oct. 17, 1988, 47.

26. Robert Venturi, "Diversity, Relevance, and Representation in Historicism, or Plus Ça Change,  . . ." in Venturi and Scott Brown, View from the Campidoglio, 109, 113, 114 (emphasis added).

27. Cesar Pelli, interviewed by Mark Alden Branch, Art New England, April 1990, 13.