1. Lieutenant Marguerite, Bureau Arabe, Miliana to Beauchamp, 11 July 1851, AGGA, 1 H 7; also 1 H 8. Marguerite's observations were based on reports furnished by indigenous spies, who alerted colonial authorities about three Algerians with information about seditious political and religious activities. Arrested and later interrogated, the three men agreed to exchange information for clemency. The long testimony of al-Hajj Muhammad ibn Ibrahim revealed the existence of an informal association of religious leaders, mainly sufi shaykhs from all parts of Algeria. Called the "association of the forty sharifs" by the colonial regime, knowledge of the group's existence sparked a sufi scare in French circles.

If al-Hajj Muhammad b. Ibrahim's testimony is credible, it seems that by 1848 prominent sufi notables from the Tayyibiyya, Qadiriyya, Darqawa, Awlad Sidi al-Shaykh, and the Rahmaniyya orders had joined forces to achieve several goals. One was to maintain a system of sustained communication to monitor events in Algeria and particularly the activities

of the colonial regime. Another was to foment rebellion in communities throughout the colony.

During his lengthy interrogation, al-Hajj Muhammad b. Ibrahim claimed that the sufi association had decided to "exchange news and information regarding the French, their situation, and their intentions." It was part of a larger plan to drive the infidels from North Africa; when the time was right, the sufi shaykhs would declare a general jihad. As a prelude to large-scale revolt, local dissidents, often with mahdist pretensions, were to be encouraged to provoke disturbances in the countryside and ordinary folk persuaded to support chiliastic rebels. When the French army was sufficiently distracted by numerous, simultaneous uprisings, the sufi leaders would give the signal for massive rebellion. In his statement, the informant named Mustafa b. 'Azzuz, who had been residing in the Tunisian Jarid for nearly a decade, as representing the Rahmaniyya order along with his brothers, Muhammad and Mabruk. See also, Ahmed Nadir, "Les ordres religieux et la conquête française (1830-1851)," RASJEP 9, 4 (1972): 819-72.

2. Madeleine Rouvillois-Brigol, Le pays de Ouargla (Sahara Algérien): Variations et organisation d'un espace rural en milieu désertique (Paris: Publications du Département de Géographie de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 1975); Jean Lethielleux, Ouargla, cité saharienne des origines au début du XXe siècle (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1983); Georges Rolland, L'Oued Rir et la colonisation française au Sahara (Paris, 1887); Georges Yver, "Tuqqurt," EI (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1934) 4: 250-51; and L. Charles Féraud, "Notes historiques sur la province de Constantine: Les Ben-Djellab, sultans de Touggourt," in RA 23-31 (1879-1887).

I arrived at these population estimates by using demographic data from AMG, Algérie, H 230 bis and M 1317; Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 23 (1879): 59; and Henri Jus, Les oasis de l'Oued Rir' en 1856 et 1879 (Constantine: Marle, 1879), 8.

3. Théodore Pein, Lettres familières sur L'Algérie, un petit royaume arabe , 2d ed. (Algiers: Jourdan, 1893), 6-7.

4. Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 23 (1879): 49-60.

5. Ibid.; Eugène Cherbonneau, Précis historique de la dynastie des Benou-Djellab, princes de Touggourt (Paris, 1851); and AMG, Algérie, M 1317.

4. Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 23 (1879): 49-60.

5. Ibid.; Eugène Cherbonneau, Précis historique de la dynastie des Benou-Djellab, princes de Touggourt (Paris, 1851); and AMG, Algérie, M 1317.

6. Cherbonneau, Précis ; and Lethielleux, Ouargla , 180.

7. Yver, "Tuggurt," 251.

8. E. Pellissier de Reynaud, Annales algériennes , 2d ed. (Paris: Librarie Militaire, 1854), 1: 325, noted that while the Banu Jallab's official title under the Turks was "shaykh" of Tuqqurt, Saharan peoples referred to them as "sultan" out of deference for their power.

9. Rouvillois-Brigol, Ouargla , 27; and Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 23 (1879): 217.

10. AMG, Algérie, M 1317; Vincent Largeau, Le pays de Rirha, Ouargla et Ghadames (Paris: Hachette, 1879); and idem, Le Sahara Algérien (Paris: Hachette, 1881); also Pein, Lettres , 43-45.

11. AMG, Algérie, M 1317; Rouvillois-Brigol, Ouargla , 25-31; and Lethielleux, Ouargla , 185-200.

12. AMG, Algérie M 1317; Eugène Daumas, Le Sahara Algérien (Paris: Langlois et Leclercq, 1845), 137; and Elisée Reclus, L'Afrique septentrionale , vol. 11 of Nouvelle géographie universelle: La terre et les hommes (Paris: Hachette, 1886), 561-65.

13. AMG, Algérie, H 235; and de la Porte, Tunis, to minister of foreign affairs, Paris, "Notice sur les relations commerciales que Tougourt entretient avec Tunis," 8 April 1845, AMAE, Tunisie, c.c., vol. 54; and Daumas, Sahara , 137.

14. L. Charles Féraud, Kitab el-Adouani ou le Sahara de Constantine et de Tunis (Constantine: Arnoulet, 1868), 185-86; and Pein, Lettres , 7-9.

15. AMG, Algérie, M 1317.

16. Pellissier de Reynaud, Annales 1: 325, noted that the sultan of Tuqqurt even sent forces to battle the bey of the Constantine in 1833, but the bey's use of artillery brought defeat. The humiliation suffered by the Banu Jallab caused them to contact the French military concerning an alliance. In exchange for overthrowing Ahmad Bey and rendering tribute to France, 'Ali b. Jallab requested that the French nominate him as the bey of the Constantine.

17. Lieutenant Prax, "L'Algérie méridionale ou Sahara Algérien, Tougourt, le Souf," in ROAC 4 (1848): 129-204; and E. Watbled, "Cirta-Constantine," RA 14 (1870): 208.

18. AMG, Algérie, M 1317.

19. Joseph-Adrien Seroka, "Le sud Constantinois de 1830 à 1855," RA 56 (1912): 415, 500-503.

20. Ibid., 521-24; and "Historique de 1851," AGGA, 10 H 18.

19. Joseph-Adrien Seroka, "Le sud Constantinois de 1830 à 1855," RA 56 (1912): 415, 500-503.

20. Ibid., 521-24; and "Historique de 1851," AGGA, 10 H 18.

21. Cherbonneau, Précis ; and Prax, "L'Algérie mériodinale."

22. Anonymous, May 1850, AMG, Algérie, 1 H 133; and Seroka, "Le sud," 524-28.

23. Rouvillois-Brigol, Ouargla , 1-5; Féraud, Kitab el-Adouani , 202-7; and Reclus, L'Afrique , 607.

24. Rouvillois-Brigol, Ouargla , 27-32.

25. "Considerations politiques sur les sédentaires et nomades d'Ouargla," n.d., AGGA, 10 H 52; and Colonel Noix, Algérie et Tunisie , vol. 6 of Géographie militaire , 2d ed. (Paris: Librarie Militaire, 1890), 152-55.

26. C. W. Newbury, "North African and Western Sudan Trade in the Nineteenth Century: A Re-Evaluation," JAH 7 , 2 (1966): 233-46; and Jean-Louis Miège, "La Libye et le commerce transsaharien au XIXe siècle," ROMM 19 (1975): 135-68.

27. "Considerations politiques sur les sédentaires et nomades d'Ouargla," n.d., AGGA, 10 H 52; Ismael Bouderhab, "Relation d'un voyage à R'at en août 1858," AGGA, F 80 1677; and Rouvillois-Brigol, Ouargla , 27-32.

28. Lethielleux, Ouargla , 223-48; and Alain Romey, Les Sa'id 'Atba de N'Goussa (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1983), 55-69.

29. Le Capitaine Bou Said, Lalla Mouina (Paris: Librarie Militaire, 1886), 91-96.

30. Georges Yver, "Wargla," EI (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1934) 4: 1123-24; and idem, "Notes pour servir à l'historique de Ouargla," RA 64 (1923): 381-442.

31. Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 25 (1881): 121-26.

32. Pein, Lettres , 215.

33. Sidi al-Aghwati's prophecies and those of other saints were recorded from oral traditions by Charles Richard, Étude sur l'insurrection du Dahra (1845-1846) (Algiers: Besancenez, 1846). Sidi al-Aghwati's written and oral prophecies were passed around in the nineteenth century. Pein, Lettres , 51-52, mentions a local holy man residing in Bu Sa'ada, where Pein was the commanding officer from 1850 until 1859. The holy man read the predictions of Sidi al-Aghwati to Pein and, in the French officer's words, "explained to me" the meaning of the defunct saint's words. This reveals the extraordinary power over words which holy persons wielded in North Africa; the uncertainties unleashed by the French conquest would have increased the social demand for those who could foretell the future and thus bring assurance to communities gripped by anxieties regarding what lay ahead.

Jean Mattei also noted that Sidi al-Aghwati's predictions were passed around by word of mouth in the cities of southern Tunisia in 1854; Mattei to Béclard, 24 June 1854, ARGT, carton 423. This indicates that Tunisia participated in the information and rumor circuits centered in Algeria.

34. Clifford Geertz, "Centers, Kings, and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power," in Culture and Its Creators: Essays in Honor of Edward Shils , Joseph-Ben David and Terry N. Clark, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 150-71. Michael Adas, Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the European Colonial Order (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 92-93, observed that the prophetic figure "molded millennial tendencies into a persuasive ideology."

35. Corneille Trumelet, Les français dans le désert: Journal historique, militaire, et descriptif d'une expédition aux limites du Sahara Algérien (Paris: Challamel, 1885), 43.

36. Annie Rey, "Mohammed b. 'Abdallah, ou le combat du chérif de Ouargla," in Les Africains , Charles-André Julien, ed. (Paris: Éditions Jeune Afrique, 1978), 12: 201, states that his name was either Ibrahim Ibn Abi

Faris or Ibrahim Ibn 'Abd Allah; Seroka, "Le sud," 530, claims that his name was Ahmad b. Husayn.

37. Seroka, "Le sud," 530. Emile Dermenghem's Le culte des saints dans l'Islam maghrébin (Paris: Gallimard, 1954), 71-86, contains a description of Sidi Abu Madiyan's shrine and the devotional practices associated with it. Peter von Sivers in "The Realm of Justice: Apocalyptic Revolts in Algeria (1849-1879)," Humaniora Islamica 1 (1973): 47-60, discusses the social construction of the messianic personality.

38. Rey, "Mohammed b. 'Abdallah," 201-3; Seroka, "Le sud," 530-31; and Trumelet, Français , 44-52.

39. On the Sanusiyya and its founder, see Ahmad S. al-Dajani's al-Haraka al-Sanusiyya (Beirut: Dar Lubnan, 1967); Bradford G. Martin, Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 99-124; and Abdulmola S. El-Horeir, "Social and Economic Transformations in the Libyan Hinterland during the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century: The Role of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanusi" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1981).

40. E. Mangin, "Notes sur l'histoire de Laghouat," RA 39 (1895): 148-54.

41. Charles-André Julien, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine , 2d ed. (Paris: PUF, 1979), 1: 391-92. Martin, Brotherhoods , 109, states that Muhammad b. 'Ali al-Sanusi left Cyrenaica in eastern Tripolitania for Mecca in 1846, remaining there until 1853.

42. Dajani, al-Haraka , 295-96, contains the letter from the sharif to the governor, Sidi al-Hajj Musa Agha, dated 8 April 1851. In Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah's letter, he mentions receiving another missive from the mudir, which suggests that they were in correspondence.

43. Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 25: 124-26; also anonymous, "Notice sur le Chérif Snoussi," 1856, AMG, Algérie, H 229; and ''Historique du cercle de Biskra," 1851, AGGA, 10 H 18.

44. Rey, "Mohammad b. 'Abdallah," 208; and Trumelet, Français , 55-60.

45. Trumelet, Français , 57.

46. Ibid.; and Rey, "Mohammad b. 'Abdallah," 208.

45. Trumelet, Français , 57.

46. Ibid.; and Rey, "Mohammad b. 'Abdallah," 208.

47. Anonymous, "Ordres religieux, Ouargla," AGGA, 10 H 52; "Renseignements politiques, état des confréries," 1895, AGGA, 16 H 8.

48. AMG, Algérie, M 1317; and Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 23: 54-55.

49. Lethielleux, Ouargla , 223-48.

50. Commandant of Oran to governor-general, Algiers, 10 January 1852, AGGA, 1 H 8; and Trumelet, Français , 60-61.

51. Rey, "Mohammad b. 'Abdallah," 207-8; and Trumelet, Français , 57-59.

52. Commandant of Oran to governor-general, Algiers, 10 January 1852, AGGA, 1 H 8; and Trumelet, Français , 60-61. For the Awlad Sidi

al-Shaykh's history and for the sharif's relationship with Sidi Hamza, see Peter von Sivers, "Alms and Arms: The Combative Saintliness of the Awlad Sidi Shaykh in the Algerian Sahara, Sixteenth-Nineteenth Centuries," MR 8, 5-6 (1983): 113-23.

53. Rey, "Mohammed b. 'Abdallah," 214-15. The new construction's architecture and spatial placement were symbolic of the political essence of the sharif's movement; it signaled a break with the past and the sharif's disassociation from the ancient quarrels dividing Warqala, quarrels which were not permitted within the palace confines.

54. Trumelet, Français , 61-62; and Dajani, al-Haraka , 295-96. In his letter to the mudir of Ghadamis, the sharif attributed his victory over the infidels to the baraka that he obtained directly from Sidi Muhammad b.'Ali al-Sanusi.

55. Dajani, al-Haraka , 295-96; and Mangin, "Notes," 148-54.

56. Dajani, al-Haraka , 295-96; and Mangin, "Notes," 148-54.

57. Pein, Lettres , 217-18.

58. Gianni Albergoni, "Variations italiennes sur un thème français: La Sanusiya," in Connaissances du Maghreb: Sciences Sociales et Colonisation (Paris: Éditions du CNRS, 1984), 111-34. Nevertheless, El-Horeir, "Transformations," 114, asserts that French suspicions of Sanusiyya and Ottoman involvement in Algerian politics should be given credence.

59. AMG, Algérie, 1 H 136; "Historique du cercle de Biskra," 1851, AGGA, 10 H 18; and Trumelet, Français , 63-64.

60. AMG, Algérie, 1 H 136; "Historique du cercle de Biskra," 1851, AGGA, 10 H 18; and general of Constantine to governor-general, Algiers, 22 January 1853, AGGA, 1 H 10.

61. Seroka, "Le sud," 532-33; Mattei to Béclard, Tunis, 24 June 1854, ARGT, carton 423; and AMG, Algérie, 1 H 133.

62. Franco-Tunisian negotiations over the borders were under way in 1850-1851, Watha'iq [Tunis] 15 (1991), 50-81.

63. Mattei to Béclard, Tunis, 24 June 1854, ARGT, carton 423; AMG, Algérie, 1 H 133 and 1 H 136; "Historique du cercle de Biskra," 1851, AGGA, 10 H 18; and general of Constantine to governor-general, Algiers, 22 January 1853, AGGA, 1 H 10.

64. Anonymous, "Apparition d'un chérif à Ouargla," 1851, AGGA, 1 H 8; Trumelet, Français , 64-66; and Seroka, "Le sud," 532-35.

65. Report, 22 August 1853, AGGA, 1 H 10; Seroka, "Le sud," 538; and Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 25 (1881): 134-35.

66. Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 25 (1881): 135, 198-201; Seroka, "Le sud," 533-35; Trumelet, Français , 65.

67. Trumelet, Français , 67-68; and Bael Hadj Merghoub, Le développement politique en Algérie: Étude des populations de la région du Mzab (Paris: Colin, 1972).

68. Seroka, "Le sud," 538, 541; report, 2 May 1852, AGGA, 1 H 9; 17 May 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 13, no. 42; and Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 26 (1882): 109-11.

69. 2 May 1852, AGGA, 1 H 9; 17 May 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 13, no. 42; Seroka, "Le sud," 538, 541; and Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 26: 109-11.

70. 17 May 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 13, no. 42; AGGA, 10 H 18; and Pein, Lettres , 225. The Banu Jallab traditionally maintained diplomatic relations with Tunisian rulers, as seen for example by the letter from 'Abd al-Rahman b. 'Umar b. Jallab to Ahmad Bey in 1841 in which the new sultan of Tuqqurt notified the bey of his accession to Tuqqurt's throne and expressed the desire to "confirm the existence of good relations." "Makatib Awlad ibn Jallab, Bay Tuqqurt," AGT, H series, dossier 930, carton 78, armoire 7.

71. Bureau Arabe, Biskra, to governor-general, Algiers, 11 May 1852, AGGA, 1 H 9; report, 26 October 1852, AMG, Algérie, 1 H 134; and Seroka, "Le sud," 540-44.

72. Bureau Arabe, Biskra, to governor-general, Algiers, 11 May 1852, AGGA, 1 H 9; report, 26 October 1852, AMG, Algérie, 1 H 134; and Seroka, "Le sud," 540-44.

73. Ali Merad, "Laghouat," EI , 2d ed. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986), 5: 595-97; R. Zannettacci, "Laghouat," CHEAM (1937) 9, no. 210; and Odette Petit, "Laghouat: Essai d'histoire sociale" (doctoral diss., École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1967).

74. Pein, Lettres , 393.

75. Eugène Fromentin, Un été dans le Sahara , new edition introduced and annotated by Anne-Marie Christine (Paris: Le Sycomore, 1981), 124-36; and Roger Le Tourneau, "L'occupation de Laghouat par les français (1844-1852)," in Études maghrébines: Mélanges Charles-André Julien (Paris: PUF, 1964), 111-36. Merad, "Laghouat," 596, cites the folk rituals. From 1927 on, the oasis became one of the principal centers of the Islamic Reform Movement under Shaykh 'Abd al-Hamid b. Badis's leadership.

76. Eugène Graulle, Insurrection de Bou-Amama (Paris: Lavauzelle, 1905); Peter von Sivers, "Secular Anxieties and Religious Righteousness: The Origins of the Insurrection of 1881 in the Nomadic and Sedentary Communities of the Algerian Southwest," Peuples Méditerranéens 18 (1982): 145-62; and Ross E. Dunn, "Bu Himara's European Connexion: The Commercial Relations of a Moroccan Warlord," JAH 21, 2 (1980): 235-53; and idem, "The Bu Himara Rebellion in Northeast Morocco: Phase I," MES 17, 1 (1981): 31-48.

77. Trumelet, Français , 67-79.

78. Report, 22 September 1853, AGGA, 1 H 10; and Seroka, "Le sud," 545-49.

79. Pein, Lettres , 215.

80. Trumelet, Français , chapter 5; and Rey, "Mohammad b. 'Abdallah," 208-20. Shaykh Hamza was probably playing a double game with his colonial mentors; he was rewarded for the capture of Warqala with a khalifalik stretching from Geryville to Djelfa.

81. Report, 26 October 1854, AGGA, 1 H 11.

82. Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 26 (1882): 113-16; report, 23 January 1855, AGGA, 1 H 12; "Historique de 1854," AGGA, 10 H 18; and Seroka, "Le sud," 549-62.

83. "Historique de 1854," AGGA, 10 H 18; Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 26 (1882): 113-16; and Seroka, "Le sud," 549-62.

84. Report, 23 January 1855, AGGA, 1 H 12.

85. Report, 23 January 1855, AGGA, 1 H 12; and Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 26 (1882): 113-16.

86. Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, The Tijaniyya: A Sufi Order in the Modern World (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), 71-74; and the biographical notice devoted to 'Ali al-Tammasini in Muhammad al-Hafnawi, Ta'rif al-khalaf bi rijal al-salaf , 2d ed. (Tunis: al-Maktaba al-'Atiqa, 1982), 282-86.

87. "Historique du cercle de Biskra," 1851, AGGA, 10 H 18; and Seroka, "Le sud," 533-36.

88. AGGA, 1 H 8, 10 H 18, and 10 H 72; AGT, D-97-3; and Tissot, report, 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, mém./doc., vol. 8, no. 29.

89. Rey, "Mohammad b. 'Abdallah," 212.

90. AGGA, 25 H 16 (2), 1 H 8, and 10 H 18; and Abun-Nasr, Tijaniyya , 68-74.

91. Abun-Nasr, Tijaniyya , 85-88; and Bice Slama, L'insurrection de 1864 en Tunisie (Tunis: Maison Tunisienne de l'Édition, 1967).

92. AGGA, 16 H 2, 1 H 15, and 10 H 43; AMG, Algérie, 1 H 135. The 1858 revolt of Sidi Masmudi is discussed by von Sivers, "The Realm."

93. AGGA, 10 H 72 and 16 H 8; Marthe and Edmond Gouvian, Kitab aayane al-marhariba (Algiers: Imprimerie Orientale, 1920), 153-57; and Seroka, "Le sud," 524.

94. AGGA, 10 H 72, 16 H 2, and 16 H 3; Gouvian, Kitab , 148-53. Yvonne Turin's findings in Affrontements culturels dans l'Algérie coloniale: Écoles, médecines, religion, 1830-1880 (Paris: Maspéro, 1971), 128-35, support my contention that the practice of Islam as locally lived moved into the pre-Sahara away from areas in proximity to settler colonization. Sufi centers, like Tulqa and al-Hamil, which had eschewed involvement in rebellious activities, were able to provide religious and educational services not available to Algerian Muslims in the northern Tell regions or in regions where revolts had occurred.

95. AGGA, 10 H 72 and 16 H 2; AGT, D-97-3 and D-172-3; Seroka, "Le Sud," 548; and Gouvian, Kitab , 158-64.

96. AGGA, 16 H 8; AGT, D-97-3; and letter, 15 November 1851, AGT, carton 206, dossier 91, armoire 21.

97. Report, 21 February 1852, AGGA, 1 H 9, no. 47.

98. Report, 23 January 1855, AGGA, 1 H 12.

99. Mattei to Béclard, 21 April 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, c.c., vol. 56; and Mattei to Béclard, 22 January 1854, ARGT, carton 423.

100. Ibrahim b. Muhammad al-Sasi al-'Awamir, al-suruf fi tarikh al-Sahra' wa Suf (Tunis: al-Dar al-Tunisiyya l'il-Nashr, 1977); and Claude Bataillon, Le Souf: Étude de géographie humaine (Algiers: Université d'Alger, 1955).

101. "Étude sur le Sahara", 1839, AMG, Algérie, H 227; Warnier, "Rapport sur l'Oued Souf et ses relations commerciales," c. 1856, AGGA, 22 H 26; and Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 26 (1882): 46-47.

102. Lieutenant Baudot, 1876, "A travers le Souf," AMG, Algérie, M 1317; also H 229.

103. AMG, Algérie, M 1317; "Considerations sur le commerce et l'industrie des tissus de laine du Sahara," 1857, AGGA, 1 H 14; and report, 1856, AGGA, 22 H 26.

104. Captain Warnier, Bureau Arabe, Biskra, 1856, AGGA, 22 H 26.

105. AGGA, 10 H 18 and 1 H 10; AMG, Algérie, 1 H 134 and 1 H 135.

106. AGGA, 10 H 18 and 1 H 10; AMG, Algérie, 1 H 134 and 1 H 135.

107. "Historique de 1854," AGGA, 10 H 18; Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 26: 113-16; and Seroka, "Le sud," 549-62.

108. AGGA, 1 H 11 and 1 H 8; and Rey, "Mohammed b. 'Abdallah," 214.

109. Tissot, 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, mém./doc., vol. 8, no. 28; Mattei to Roches, 5 June 1855, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 15; and Mattei to Béclard, 20 January 1854, ARGT, carton 423.

110. Jean Mattei, Sfax, to French consul, Tunis, 1856, ARGT, carton 414.

111. Mattei to Béclard, 24 June 1854, ARGT, carton 423.

112. Ibid.

111. Mattei to Béclard, 24 June 1854, ARGT, carton 423.

112. Ibid.

113. Augustin Espina, Gabis, to French consul, Tunis, 30 March 1851, ARGT, carton 414.

114. Report, "Apparition d'un chérif," October 1851, AGGA, 1 H 8; and report, June 1850, AMG, Algérie, 1 H 133.

115. November 1851, AGT, carton 206, dossier 91, armoire 21.

116. In Lalla-Mouina , 202-10, Bou-Said, a French spy and flawless speaker of Algerian Arabic, transcribed the words of a popular ballad recited in an Arab cafe in Tigdit (near Mustaghanam) in honor of the mahdi. As

the military officer observed, the ballad "to which the most incredulous are not indifferent describes the aspirations of the Arab people. The music augmented the effect of the song upon the audience. We give the song in its original version to show that the Arabes have in no way been disarmed":

Beaten, pursued, the infidels will escape in their ships; and after besieging their cities, they will be taken by storm . . . . The reign of God will commence, because the whole earth adores Him and the end of the world is near; listen people, listen to the song of the last day; when the sun will fold upon itself; when the stars fall from the sky; when the mountains move; when the female camels and their offspring will be neglected; when the wild beasts will be mixed together; when the seas will boil; when the souls will be rejoined to their bodies.

Pessah Shinar, in his "A Controversial Exponent of the Algerian Salafiyya: The Kabyle 'Alim, Imam and Sharif Abu Ya'la Sa'id B. Muhammad Al-Zawawi," in Studies in Islamic History and Civilization in Honour of Professor David Ayalon , Moshe Sharon, ed. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986), 267-90, noted that until late in the nineteenth century, the Berber scholar, Abu Ya'la, and many others viewed the mahdi as the only one capable of ridding Algeria of European rule.

117. Governor-general of Algeria to French consul general, Tunis, 6 November 1851, AGT, carton 206, dossier 91, armoire 21.

118. Report, December 1851, AGGA, 1 H 8, no. 239; and Mattei to French consul, Tunis, 1851, ARGT, carton 415.

119. Sliman b. Jallab to Muhammad Bey, Tunis, AGT, H series, dossier 930, carton 78, armoire 7, no. 10.

120. Mattei to Béclard, 24 June 1854, ARGT, carton 423.

121. Tissot, 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, mém./doc., vol. 8, no. 28; Mattei to Roches, 9 June 1855, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 15; and ARGT, carton 423.

122. Tissot, 1853, AMAE, Tunisie, mém./doc., vol. 8, no. 28; Mattei to Roches, 9 June 1855, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 15; and ARGT, carton 423.

123. Mattei to Roches, 9 June 1855, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 15; and ARGT, carton 423.

124. Sliman b. Jallab to Muhammad Bey, Tunis, c. June 1855, AGT, H series, dossier 930, carton 78, armoire 7, no. 10; and Mattei to Roches, 9 June 1855, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 15.

125. "Histoire de Biskra," AGGA, 10 H 43 and 1 H 8; and Mattei to Roches, 28 August 1855, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 15.

126. Mattei to Roches, 9 June 1855, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 15; AGGA, 1 H 13; and AGT, 227-20-1.

127. Bissuel, "Histoire de Biskra," AGGA, 10 H 43.

128. Béclard, Tunis, to minister of foreign affairs, Paris, 28 February 1854, AMAE, Tunisie, c.p., vol. 14.

129. Mattei to Béclard, 23 January 1854, ARGT, carton 423; and AGGA, 1 H 12 and 1 H 13.

130. Mattei to Béclard, 23 January 1854, ARGT, carton 423; and AGGA, 1 H 12 and 1 H 13.

131. Bissuel, "Histoire de Biskra," AGGA, 10 H 43.

132. AGGA, 1 H 12 and 10 H 43; the numerous letters from Sliman and his descendants to Muhammad Bey and Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey attest to the growing financial embarrassment suffered by the émigrés in the Tunisian capital; AGT, H series, dossier 930, carton 78, armoire 7.

133. Rey, "Mohammed b. 'Abdallah," 220-21; Féraud, "Ben-Djellab," 30: 430-33; and Eugène Perret, Récits algériennes (Paris: Bloud et Barral, 1886-1887) 2: 84-85.

134. 5 July 1865, ARGT, carton 415; Rouvillois-Brigol, Ouargla , 32; and Louis Rinn, Histoire de l'insurrection de 1871 en Algérie (Algiers: Jourdan, 1891).

135. AGT, carton 207, dossier 97, armoire 21, number 40; and AGGA, 10 H 43.

136. Governor-general of Algeria to resident-general of Tunisia, 1 August 1930, AGT, D-172-3.