1. Its dating is uncertain, but it is certainly not very old. As far as I am aware, the earliest inscriptional date in the temple is 1803 C.E. , which is given as the date of the consecration of a foot image of Jinkusalsuri. I thank Surendra Bothara for this information.

2. Santi Vijay's image and the various foot images of other ascetics are given full rites of worship daily by the temple's pujari on his normal morning rounds. Vicaksansri's image is worshiped less formally.

3. See Granoff 1992 for an extended discussion of the mortuary dimension of Jain worship.

4. I have insufficient data to address the question of whether there are phenomena analogous to the cult of the Dadagurus among Tapa Gacch-affiliated Jains.

5. Who—as the inclusion of suri in his name indicates—achieved the status of acarya , which his guru never did.

6. Mahavir's birthday, which occurs on the thirteenth of the bright fortnight of the lunar month of Caitra (March/April).

7. His full name and title as given in the biography: sacce sukho ke sagar rup paramguru der ganadhisvar sri sri sukhsagarji maharaj .

8. However, Manjul Vinaysagar Jain (1989: 48) says that his initiation was given by Bhagvansagar. Although Sukhsagar died in 1885 (to be succeeded by Bhagvansagar), his death did not occur until some months after Chagansagar's initiation.

9. These are the twelve "lesser vows" that, in theory, a truly serious layman or laywoman should undertake.

9. These are the twelve "lesser vows" that, in theory, a truly serious layman or laywoman should undertake.

11. Manjul Vinaysagar Jain (1989: 48) says that he created 68 nuns. He does not give a figure for monks.

12. More correctly, perhaps, I should say that he predicted the end of the drought. He and Bhagvansagar had been blamed for the drought. He responded by saying "Hey, isn't rain on its way? Why are you blaming me?" Sure enough, the rain came, and the people considered it a miracle.

13. A periodic pratikraman occurring at four-monthly intervals. One of them occurs at the beginning of the rainy season retreat.

14. See Cort (1989: 159-60) for details on this issue.

15. This is a conventional formula. It is also conventional in these materials not to say simply that an individual "died," but to state that he or she attained svargvas (a "heavenly abode").

16. Nonetheless, his death anniversary, which is noted in the Khartar Gacch al-

     manac, is given as the sixth of the bright fortnight of Bhadrapad. This is because in a normal year both Paryusan and his death would have occurred in Bhadrapad, not in Sravan.

17. For an enlightening discussion of these monuments, see R. L. Mishra 1991: Ch. 6.

18. At the time of my research these observances were no longer being held in Jaipur. A knowledgeable respondent told me that his death anniversary would be likely to be noted and observed only by ascetics. Special observances continue to be held, however, at his memorial shrine in Lohavat. Most of my friends and acquaintances had never heard of Chagansagar.

19. I know of no cases of nuns possessing similar powers. In principle, however, there is no reason why they should not.

20. This is by no means unusual in Jain hagiography. For example, we have already seen that the birth of Devcandraji, author of the snatra puja , was heralded by a dream in which his mother saw sixty-four Indras performing the birth ablution of a Tirthankar's image on Mt. Meru.

21. On the Dadagurus, see also Laidlaw 1985. The term dada means "paternal grandfather"; guru means "spiritual preceptor."

22. An early precedent for the Dadagurus' cult may have been the cult of Gautama (Mahavir's foremost disciple and usually called Gautam Svami by Svetambar Jains), which had emerged among Svetambars by medieval times and was, as is the Dadagurus' cult today, associated with worldly prosperity (Dundas 1992: 33-34). Unlike the Dadagurus, however, Gautama has achieved liberation. For an excellent description and analysis of Gautama's role in contemporary Svetambar ritual, see Laidlaw 1995: Ch. 17.

23. The latter can be easily distinguished from images of the Tirthankars by the usual presence of three symbols: the muhpatti , ogha , and book. The muhpatti is the cloth that ascetics hold before their mouths when speaking to avoid harming small living things in the air; the ogha is the moplike implement that ascetics use to brush surfaces free of small life-forms before sitting or lying. The book symbolizes the teaching function of ascetics.

24. There is nothing uniquely Jain in the emphasis on feet. From early times the Buddha was represented by footprints. Ritual attention to the feet of important persons, deities, and ascetics is a pan-Indian theme. See Babb 1986, esp. Ch. 3, for Hindu examples.

25. Other temples in which the Tirthankar is represented by feet rather than by an anthropomorphic image are rare. The best known example is at Pavapuri, where Lord Mahavir is said to have achieved nirvan .

26. On the formation of the Khartar Gacch, see especially Dundas 1992: 120-22; also 1993. Variations exist in the accounts available. The narratives and biographies to follow are based on materials drawn from Vinaysagar 1959 and 1989. Vinaysagar 1959 was a particularly valuable source and will be cited specifically in relation to particular points.

27. In some accounts, however, Vardhmansuri is not present at this debate. See Dundas 1992: 121.

28. For translated accounts of this debate, see Granoff 1990b: 172-78.

29. This is my translation of the Hindi translation given in Vinaysagar 1959: 8.

30. According to the account given in Vinaysagar, the Caityavasis all later found various pretexts to return and begin living in temples again (1959: 10-11).

31. According to Dundas (1992: 121), this name is associated particularly with Jinvallabhsuri.

32. The following accounts of the lives of the Dadagurus are based on A. Nahta (1988), A. and B. Nahta (1939, 1971), Vidyut Prabha Sri (1980), and Vinaysagar (1959, 1989). For an English version of Jindattsuri's life translated from the Khartargacchbrhadguruali , see Granoff 1993.

33. This incident is retold in Vinaysagar (1959: 32).

34. This incident is reported in each and every account of Jindattsuri's life that I have seen.

35. The miracle of the book at Cittaur is also attributed to Siddhasena, another distinguished ascetic. Here, too, the monk obtains magic powers from the book (or books). See Granoff 1990: 265-66

36. The miracles described here and also for the other Dadagurus are described in virtually all accounts of their lives. In many temples and dadabaris they are portrayed in vivid illustrations on the walls. In addition, they are described in the text of the Dadagurus' most important rite of worship (to be discussed later in the chapter). Most devotees of the Dadagurus know them well.

37. On the five pirs , see William Crooke 1978: 202-3, 206. He suggests that they are possibly Muslimized versions of the Mahabharata's five Pandavas.

38. A similar story is told of the great fourteenth-century Khartar Gacch leader, Jinprabhasuri (see Granoff 1993: 25). Sixty-four yoginis attended his discourse disguised as laywomen. He cast a spell on them and they were unable to rise from their seats. They then begged for forgiveness.

39. In these materials the term updrav is used for such disturbances.

40. A remarkably similar story is told of Jinesvarsuri. See Vinaysagar 1959: 12-13.

41. A mountain and famous pilgrimage site in Junagadh District, Gujarat.

42. This is apparently the same pilgrimage party that experienced the miraculous rescue from the bandits, but this is not completely clear in the sources I have seen.

43. To devotees this is a perfect example of how the Dadagurus always fulfill wishes (the word for which is usually manokamna , one's "heart's wish").

44. This incident is reported in Vinaysagar 1959: 49.

45. A period sacred to the goddess.

46. I asked many people about this, but nobody seemed to know or care. I was and remain somewhat surprised by this apparent indifference, because the " mani " is obviously an important element in this figure's identity.

47. Which Vidyut Prabha Sri identifies specifically as an Osval gotra (1980: 19).

48. The version presented here is taken from Vinaysagar (1989), but these events are described in most histories of the Dadagurus.

49. This detail from Vinaysagar (1959: 155). The author says that Jindattsuri came from heaven to witness the ceremony.

50. An alternative date for his demise is Phalgun amavasya . See Vidyut Prabha Sri 1980: 23.

51. Identified as Osval by Vidyut Prabha Sri (1980: 24).

52. One of the most important of the early figures in the Khartar Gacch lineage.

53. It should be pointed out that other Jain mendicants are credited (by other sources) with similar influence over Akbar. Most importantly, Abu'l Fazl's A'in-i-Akbari lists three such mendicants among ''The Learned Men of the Time." They are Hirvijaysuri and his disciples Vijaysensuri and Bhanucandra Upadhyay (V. Smith 1917: 265, 267), all three belonging to the Tapa Gacch. Jincandrasuri is not mentioned by Abu'l Fazl. Hirvijaysuri is actually credited with the conversion of Akbar to Jainism (ibid.: 267). According to an inscription at Satrunjaya (dated 1593), Hirvijaysuri persuaded Akbar to ban the slaughter of animals for six months per year, to abolish confiscation of the estates of the dead, to abolish the tax on non-Muslims, and so on (ibid.: 272-75). See also Bhatnagar 1974. According to Bhatnagar, Vijaysensuri was sent to Akbar in 1593 by the Tapa Gacch in order to counter the influence of Jincandrasuri.

52. One of the most important of the early figures in the Khartar Gacch lineage.

53. It should be pointed out that other Jain mendicants are credited (by other sources) with similar influence over Akbar. Most importantly, Abu'l Fazl's A'in-i-Akbari lists three such mendicants among ''The Learned Men of the Time." They are Hirvijaysuri and his disciples Vijaysensuri and Bhanucandra Upadhyay (V. Smith 1917: 265, 267), all three belonging to the Tapa Gacch. Jincandrasuri is not mentioned by Abu'l Fazl. Hirvijaysuri is actually credited with the conversion of Akbar to Jainism (ibid.: 267). According to an inscription at Satrunjaya (dated 1593), Hirvijaysuri persuaded Akbar to ban the slaughter of animals for six months per year, to abolish confiscation of the estates of the dead, to abolish the tax on non-Muslims, and so on (ibid.: 272-75). See also Bhatnagar 1974. According to Bhatnagar, Vijaysensuri was sent to Akbar in 1593 by the Tapa Gacch in order to counter the influence of Jincandrasuri.

54. Of course Jindattsuri subdued the five pirs (above), who are Muslim entities. In an apparent echo of this theme, Jincandrasuri is said to have subdued the adhisthayak devs of the five rivers at Akbar's orders in 1595. These terms would suggest non-Muslim supernaturals. On the other hand, in the introduction to Josi (presumably written by A. and B. Nahta) these devs are identified as five pirs (illustration facing p. 29). In any case, the theme of Jain/Muslim opposition is a good deal stronger in accounts of Jincandrasuri's life than in accounts of the other Dadagurus.

55. This story is also told of the fourteenth-century figure Jinprabhasuri. See Granoff 1993: 25-26, 34.

56. It is, however, rare for Digambars to visit their shrines. I was told that "even Muslims" worship the Dadagurus. This seems improbable to me, but expresses the Jains' own sense of ecumenism regarding the Dadagurus.

57. I think this may have reflected a desire to give the foreign investigator a "correct" version of Jainism, which in the minds of many Jains would definitely have nothing to do with such material benefits as wealth. It also may have reflected a diffidence about beliefs known to be regarded as unmodern and "superstitious" in the West. Peace of mind (in Hindi, man ki santi ) seems to be a generic respectable and reasonable religious goal in South Asia.

58. Unlike the Tirthankars, too, they were never omniscient.

59. For a description of the routines at a typical dadabari , see Laidlaw 1985.

60. Gopalji, n.d. This text was composed by someone named Gopalji of Bikaner in 1951. I do not know whether he was a yati or a layman. It is pretty clearly a Jain imitation of the Hindus' famed Hanuman Calisa . (I thank Philip Lutgendorf for confirming this point.) The Dadagurus are praised as sankat mocan (one who liberates from dangers and difficulties), which is an epithet of Hanuman, and the text is to be recited 108 times in the morning, as is the Calisa . Most imporant, both texts focus on worldly benefits to be gained by the worshiper and conferred by the object of worship.

61. In Ahmedabad I was told that the anointing of the nine points on the image's body should be done exclusively to Tirthankar images. Images of deities should receive only a mark on the forehead. This, I was told, is because in actuality they are the worshiper's fellow-worshipers. Jaipur Jains seem less fussy about this.

62. In this respect, however, there is variation in the practices of Jaipur Jains. I

     have seen diagrams with the crescent and dot made even before images of Bhairav, which from the standpoint of orthopraxy is even less acceptable than making such images before the Dadagurus.

63. Rddhisar was a prolific author. A Jaipur friend possessed several books on Ayurvedic medicine, Osval history, and other religious materials authored by this man.

64. Many people know the snatra puja text by heart as well. But the language of Rddhisar's puja is definitely easier.

65. This temple is owned by the Srimal community, not by the Osvals. The Srimals of Jaipur are staunch devotees of the Dadagurus.

66. The idea of the Dadaguru as a Tirthankar-like figure is sometimes expressed quite overtly. For example, Vinaysagar's edited history of the Khartar Gacch describes Jindattsuri as "like a Tirthankar" ( tirthankar ke saman ) (1959: 37), and states that Jindattsuri responded to laymen's questions "in the manner of the omniscient one" (ibid.: 38). It refers to Jindattsuri as a dharrn cakravarti (ibid.: 152, 156). This expression means "universal spiritual monarch," and obviously resonates with the image of the Tirthankar as the spiritualized king.

65. This temple is owned by the Srimal community, not by the Osvals. The Srimals of Jaipur are staunch devotees of the Dadagurus.

66. The idea of the Dadaguru as a Tirthankar-like figure is sometimes expressed quite overtly. For example, Vinaysagar's edited history of the Khartar Gacch describes Jindattsuri as "like a Tirthankar" ( tirthankar ke saman ) (1959: 37), and states that Jindattsuri responded to laymen's questions "in the manner of the omniscient one" (ibid.: 38). It refers to Jindattsuri as a dharrn cakravarti (ibid.: 152, 156). This expression means "universal spiritual monarch," and obviously resonates with the image of the Tirthankar as the spiritualized king.

67. Sometimes also it is called jnanbal (power of knowledge).

68. It is true that devotees stress that positive results will come only to those who worship with the appropriate devotional spirit ( bhav ); results will come to the "faithful" ( sraddhalu ), it is sometimes said. Nonetheless, the actual aid comes from the Dadagurus themselves.

69. On various occasions I have seen worshipers err by forming the conventional crescent used in Tirthankar worship. I have also witnessed such erring worshipers being corrected by others.

70. On many occasions informants have told me explicitly that the reason returned food offerings ( prasad ) can be taken from the Dadagurus but not from the Tirthankars is that the Dadagurus "have not achieved liberation ( moks )." This is a matter I raised repeatedly with informants and I am satisfied that this formula represents a general view.

71. The dadabaris at Ajmer and Mehrauli are also reputed to be highly miraculous.

72. I was told this version orally at Malpura. In the version reported in Josi (1962: 124) the recipient of the vision is identified only as a "disciple" ( sisya ). I was also told that the descendants of the Brahman are no longer pujaris of the temple, having been displaced when the temple's management was shifted from Malpura to Jaipur some years ago.

73. A Malpura pujari , however, hinted that Jinkusalsuri has manifested himself in the form of a snake. While I am sure that other examples of such reports can be found, they do not accord with what seems to be the general view that the Dadagurus manifest themselves in ascetic form ( sadhu rup ).

74. In fact, it is usually held that the Dadagurus will assist anyone, of whatever religion, who comes to them with a sincere heart.

75. The question of possible functional equivalents of the Dadagurus among Tapa Gacch-affiliated Jains or in other Jain traditions is not addressed here for lack of sufficient evidence. Nor do I find it possible to speculate about possible cause-and-effect relationships between the cult of the Dadagurus and the low number of monks in the Khartar Gacch. Does the cult of the Dadagurus flourish because of

the absence of monks, or has the presence of the Dadagurus' cult in some way inhibited or discouraged the initiation of ascetics—or, indeed, is there any relationship at all? I am unable to answer these questions on the basis of the materials at hand.