1. John Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago, [1973]), pp. 174-75; Barbara Ann Richardson, "A History of Blacks in Jacksonville, Florida, 1860-1895; A Socio-Economic and Political Study" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie-Mellon University, 1975), p. 99; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York, 1971), ch. 8-10; and Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (Dallas, 1963), ch. 4, 7, 8, 11, 14, treat race theories at the turn of the last century. The classic examples of Negrophobic literature are Thomas Dixon, The Leopard's Spots: A Romance of the White Man's Burden (New York, 1902), and The

Clansman: An Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan (New York, 1905). D. W. Griffith based his film The Birth of a Nation on The Clansman .

2. Frank Soulé, John H. Gihon, and James Nishbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), pp. 257-58; Amelia Neville, The Fantastic City: Memoirs of the Social and Romantic Life of Old San Francisco (Boston, 1932), pp. 179-80; Evelyn Wells, Champagne Days of San Francisco (New York, 1947), pp. 117, 173-74.

3. Julia Cooley Altrocchi, The Spectacular San Franciscans (New York, 1949), p. 69; Edwin S. Morby, trans. and ed., San Francisco in the Seventies: The City As Viewed By A Mexican Political Exile, by Guillermo Prieto (San Francisco, 1938), sketch opposite p. 70; San Francisco Call, Jan. 16, 1887, p. 1; Wells, Champagne Days, p. 112; also, San Francisco Examiner, Nov. 8, 1896, p. 29, for mention of a Negro bard in the article "Round the World Via Cable Car," which gave a romantic view of the many representatives of the world in San Francisco.

4. Call, March 13, 1895, p. 5; see also Morby, San Francisco, p. 112.

5. Call, May 7, 1889, p. 17, Dec. 29, 1901, p. 2; Wells, Champagne Days, pp. 173-74; The Overland Monthly XV (Sept. 1875), p. 299. San Francisco Chronicle, Nov. 2, 1904, p. 13; San Francisco Spokesman, March 26, 1932, p. 1.

6. Chronicle, June 6, 1894, p. 5; Call, June 6, 1894, p. 3.

7. Clipping in John Daggett Scrapbook, I: 100 in California State Archives, Sacramento, California. The reference to high life is from Robert Austin Warner, New Haven Negroes: A Social History (New Haven, Conn., 1940), p. 218; see also ibid, pp. 255-56; Hinton Rowan Helper, Land of Gold: Reality versus Fiction (Baltimore, 1855), p. 275; Soulé, Gihon, and Nisbet, Annals, p. 472; for unflattering descriptions, Call, Nov. 8, 1897, p. 32.

8. Robert Toll, Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1974); and Carl Wittke, Tambo and Bones: A History of the American Minstrel Stage (Durham, N.C., 1930), are good introductions to minstrelsy. Nathan I. Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York, 1971), ch. 6, provides an excellent understanding of minstrelsy's functions and offers a superb discussion of the psychological undercurrents in this and other popular forms of entertainment; San Francisco Pacific Appeal, May 24, 1862, p. 2; New York Weekly Anglo-African, Nov. 5, 1859, p. 1.

9. Call, Nov. 4, 1908, p. 7; Oakland Western American, June 8, 1929, p. 1, June 22, 1921, p. 4.

10. Chronicle, Aug. 5, 1914, p. 7.

11. San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, Nov. 26, 1904, p. 2; Oakland Western Outlook, Jan. 23, 1915, p. 1.

12. John P. Young, San Francisco: A History of the Pacific Coast Metropolis, 2 vols. (San Francisco, 1912), II: 595, quoted from James Bryce, American Commonwealth . Typical social events of the Civil War years included an Old Folks Supper in which a string and brass band played "favorite operatic airs, fashionable waltzes, polkas, [and] marches," and dances featuring polkas, mazourkas, and schottisches--derived from European sources; occasionally the suppers were attended by Black women in eighteenth-century costumes and men in "citizen's dress" of the revolutionary era; San Francisco Elevator, April 2, 1869, p. 2, June 1, 1872, p. 3; Pacific Appeal, Oct. 17, 1873, p. 4, Oct. 25, 1863, p. 2; Elevator, June 1, 1872, p. 3.

13. Altrocchi, Spectacular San Franciscans, pp. 179-80; Foster Rhea Dulles, A History of Recreation: America Learns to Play (New York, 1965 ed.), pp. 182, 193-94; Pacific Appeal, Sept. 30, 1871, p. 3, Sept. 2, 1871, p. 3.

14. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 30, 1871, p. 3.

15. Ibid., August 26, 1871, p. 3.

16. Elevator, Oct. 16, 1868, pp. 2-3; Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969]) gives the ancestry of some Black Californians; Pacific Appeal, Aug. 1, 1863, pp. 2-3, June 6, 1863, p. 3.

17. Elevator, Dec. 21, 1872, as quoted in Sally Garey, ''Some Aspects of Mid-Nineteenth Century Black Uplift: Philip A. Bell and the San Francisco Elevator " (seminar paper, University of California, Berkeley, 1967), p. 4; Pacific Appeal, April 19, 1862, p. 2.

18. Call, Aug. 2, 1864, p. 2, as quoted in Edgar M. Branch, ed., Clemens of the Call: Mark Twain in San Francisco (Berkeley, [1969]), pp. 56-57; Elevator, May 2, 1874, p. 2.

19. Fannie Barrier Williams, "Perils of the White Negro," The Colored American Magazine XIII (Dec. 1907), pp. 21-23. Interviews, Dr. Earl Lenear, Jan. 11, 1973, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973.

20. "The World in California," Hutchings' Illustrated California Magazine I (July 1856-June 1857), 387; quoted in Elevator, Oct. 27, 1865, p. 2; Charles Keeler, San Francisco and Thereabout (San Francisco, 1902), pp. 14-15.

21. Pacific Appeal, April 5, 1862, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 54.

22. Ann Charters, Nobody: The Story of "Bert" Williams (London, 1970), pp. 18, 25. For other instances of residents switching their racial identity, see San Francisco Daily Alta California, Nov. 5, 1888, p. 4, and Western American, Dec. 2, 1927, p. 1, in which policemen don blackface; Oakland Sunshine, Dec. 7, 1918, p. 2, in which an "Indian" cohabiting with a white woman in Oakland became a Negro after her death--presumably it was safer for an Indian to live with a white woman than for a Black; in Spokesman, May 17, 1934, p. 1, an apparently white waiter, accused of discriminating against a Black patron, claimed he himself was of North African descent and consequently could not possibly be prejudiced against Blacks.

23. W. E. B. Du Bois, Souls of Black Folk, in John Hope Franklin, ed., Three Negro Classics (New York, 1968 ed.), pp. 214-15. Du Bois contrasted older urban dwellers with newcomers from the south, helping me to understand how exclusive social functions perpetuated differences among Blacks; see W. E. B. Du Bois, The Black North in 1901: A Social Study (New York, 1969 ed.), p. 39.

24. Frederick Douglass' Paper (Rochester, N.Y.), April 1, 1852, p. 3.

25. Weekly Anglo-African, March 3, 1860, p. 3.

26. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 28, 1867, p. 2.

27. Pacific Appeal, Jan. 20, 1876, p. 1, May 6, 1876, p. 2.

28. Elevator, Oct. 31, 1874, p. 3, Dec. 29, 1871, pp. 2-3.

29. Western Outlook, Jan. 9, 1915, p. 2; Western Appeal, Nov. 16, 1921, p. 1, March 8, 1922, p. 2; Oakland California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 1; see the wedding of David Ruggles, Western Outlook, Jan. 2, 1915, p. 3, which seems to have had all the trappings of a major society affair.

30. California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 1; San Francisco Western Appeal, Feb. 25, 1927, p. 5.

31. San Francisco Sentinel, Dec. 6, 1890, p. 2.

32. Pacific Appeal, May 9, 1863, p. 2.

33. John Alexander Somerville, Man of Color: An Autobiography (Los Angeles, 1949), pp. 49-55.

34. Call, July 5, 1898, p. 6.

35. Elevator, Dec. 27, 1867, p. 3, Jan. 3, 1868, pp. 2-3.

36. Pacific Coast Appeal, May 3, 1902, p. 4; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 280; Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1869, p. 450 (hereafter cited as City Directory, with the appropriate year); City Directory, 1872, p. 913; Elevator, June 25, 1869, p. 3, Jan. 1, 1869, p. 2, June 25, 1869, p. 3.

37. Elevator, Jan. 5, 1866, p. 3. During or after the World War I years Oscar Hudson, the Black lawyer and consul for Liberia, organized a drum corps of approximately two dozen Black youths. A photograph of Mr. and Mrs. Hudson and the youngsters can be found in the East Bay Negro Historical Society, Oakland.

38. Elevator, May 16, 1874, p. 3, May 30, 1874, p. 3.

39. Ibid., May 4, 1872, p. 3.

40. Western Appeal, Dec. 21, 1921, p. 4; on Black soldiers, see: William H. Leckie, The Buffalo Soldiers, A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West (Norman, Okla., 1967); Arlen L. Fowler, The Black Infantry in the West, 1869-1901 (Westport, Conn., 1971); Joseph T. Wilson, The Black Phalanx: A History of the Negro Soldiers of the United States in the Wars of 1775-1812 and 1861-65 (New York, 1868 ed.); Theophilus G. Steward, The Colored Regulars in the United States Army (Philadelphia, 1904); Willard B. Gatewood, Jr., "Smoked Yankees" and the Struggle for Empire: Letters From Negro Soldiers (Chicago, [1971]); and William Wells Brown, The Negro in the American Rebellion (Boston, 1867).

41. Call, April 8, 1899, p. 7. See Chronicle, Nov. 24, 1903, p. 13, Dec. 2, 1903, p. 8, for brief accounts of fights between Black soldiers and whites.

42. Call, April 8, 1899, p. 7.

43. Call, June 23, 1899, p. 7, June 24, 1899, p. 12.

44. William Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975).

45. See the portraits in: Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers; the Black newspapers (after 1900); the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; the California Historical Society Library; and the East Bay Negro Historical Society. A number of families, such as those of Walter L. Gibson and Royal E. Towns, also have quite a few nineteenth-century photographs.

46. Elevator, Aug. 9, 1873, p. 2; see Aug. 30, 1873, p. 2 on Edmonia Lewis; Oakland Independent, Dec. 14, 1929, p.4; California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 1; Pacific Appeal, March 28, 1863, p. 4; Elevator, Oct. 19, 1872, p. 3. See the cruel stereotyping of Blacks on ragtime music sheets reproduced in William J. Schafer and Johannes Riedel, The Art of Ragtime: Form and Meaning of An Original Black American Art (Baton Rouge, La., [1973]). Pacific Coast Appeal, Feb. 13, 1904, p. 1, March 5, 1904, pp. 1, 2; Western Outlook, Jan. 23, 1915, p. 3, Feb. 13, 1915, p. 3; City Directory, 1895, 1904, 1905 .

47. City Directory, 1862; Pacific Appeal, Sept. 13, 1862, pp. 2, 4, Nov. 8, 1862, p. 3; Elevator, May 12, 1865, p. 3; see the comments of J. G. Wilson and J. H. Townsend on the rules of gentlemen, Proceedings of the First State Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of California, 1855 (Sacramento, 1855), p. 4.

48. Sentinel, Sept. 20, 1890, p. 2, on the need for Blacks to become citizens of the world.

49. Sentinel, Dec. 13, 1890, p. 2; Elevator, Nov. 8, 1867, p. 2.

50. Elevator, Aug. 9, 1873, p. 2, Dec. 13, 1890, p. 2.

51. Call, March 22, 1900, p. 4; see also Nov. 4, 1897, p. 4, March 7, 1898, p. 12, Nov. 13, 1889, p. 1, Sept. 22, 1897, p. 12, and March 17, 1900, p. 1; interview, Aurelious P. Alberga, July 27, 1976. Professor Barry Higman, Department of History, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica kindly provided information on Jackson's early life and career in Australia.

52. Examiner, Nov. 11, 1889, p. 1; Call, March 17, 1898, p. 5, May 22, 1891, p. 8; Chronicle, Dec. 6, 1903, p. 30, Dec. 11, 1903, p. 4; John Rickard Betts, America's Sporting Heritage: 1850-1950 (Reading, Mass., [1974]) on the development of sports in the U.S.

53. Call, Sept. 22, 1897, p. 12, March 10, 1894, p. 1, March 22, 1900, p. 4, March 7, 1898, p. 12; Nat Fleischer, Black Dynamite: The Story of the Negro in the Prize Ring from 1782 to 1938, vol. 1 (New York, [1938]), pp. 123-72.

54. Call, Nov. 3, 1896, p. 14.

55. Chronicle, Dec. 10, 1903, p. 4; see also Dec. 6, 1903, p. 30. Call, June 9, 1900, pp. 5, 11. Finis Farr, Black Champion: The Life and Times of Jack Johnson (Greenwich, Conn. [1969 ed.]), p. 184, on the boxer praised by Ring magazine editor Nat Fleischer, who "after years devoted to the study of heavyweight fighters" could, without hesitation, name Jack Johnson as "the greatest of them all."

56. Call, March 22, 1891, p. 8 on the Jackson-Corbett fight; March 22, 1900, p. 4.

57. Call, March 17, 1898, p. 5; on his ill health in Australia, April 17, 1901, p. 1; on the color line, Examiner, Nov. 13, 1889, p. 1; Call , Sept. 28, 1897, p. 1.

58. Aurelious Alberga, born in San Francisco in 1884, boxed for a period in his youth; he also claimed he knew Peter Jackson and spoke very highly of him. Alfred Butler and Royal Towns, both Bay Area natives, also admired Jackson and Jack Johnson when they were youngsters. See Lawrence Levine's discussion of Johnson as a hero in Black Culture and Black Consciousness (New York, 1977), pp. 430-33.

59. Pacific Appeal, May 23, 1863, p. 1-2.

60. Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (New York, [1963] ed.) presents a classic statement of the belief that plantation slavery turned most Afro-Americans into docile and child-like creatures. Recent scholarship, such as John Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South (New York, 1972); Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974); and Levine, Black Culture, disputes this interpretation.