1. Macunaíma 's resistance to the language and cultural coordinates of a single Brazilian or Spanish American region has been brilliantly recast by Héctor Olea into a Spanish translation that synthesizes colloquialisms from all over Spanish America into a language unlikely to be used by any individual Spanish American speaker. For a detailed analysis of Macunaíma 's "degeographied" language (a term coined by Mário himself), see the landmark study by M. Cavalcanti Proença, Roteiro de Macunaíma . For further discussion of the novel's Americanist character, see pages 151-52 of Haroldo de Campos's Morfologia do Macunaíma .

2. Martin Stabb's In Quest of Identity: Patterns in the Spanish American Essay of Ideas, 1890-1960 is a landmark study of the problem of Spanish American identity examined through the eyes of major essayists. Although Stabb does not address the arts directly, chapters four and five are pertinent to the vanguard period. A fairly complete list of studies of Spanish American identity published between 1899 and 1933 concludes Paul Verdevoye's "El problema de la identidad nacional e hispanoamericana," in Miguel Angel Asturias, Paris 1924-1933: Periodismo y creación literaria, ed. Amos Segala (727-29).

3. On the role of Ortega y Gasset and the Revista de Occidente in disseminating German Lebensphilosophie and cultural theory, see chapter two of Roberto González Echevarría's Alejo Carpentier: The Pilgrim at Home, and for a brief but cogent analysis of Ortega's ideas on Spanish America, see pages 68-72 of Stabb's In Quest of Identity .

4. Nelson Osorio has underscored the student movement's significance for the vanguards in "Para una caracterización histórica del vanguardismo literario hispanoamericano" and in its revision in the introduction to his 1988 manifesto anthology.

5. Americanist material in the Revista de Avance included extensive attention to José Martí; a lengthy survey of Cuban and Spanish American writers on the question of what American art should be like; articles on Waldo Frank and Count Keyserling; and pieces such as Félix Lizaso's "Programa de criolledad" (4.41, 1929) and Carlos Alberto Erro's "Rcsonancias: Lo que es común en las naciones de América" (5.48, 1930).

6. Americanist pieces of note in Amauta included a reprint of Franz Tamayo's "Carta americana para americanos" (1.3, 1926) and a debate between Tamayo and Marti Casanovas, "Autoctonismo y Europeísmo" (3.17, 1928); Antenor Orrego's "¿Cuál es la cultura quc creará América?" (3.14, 3.17, and 3.18, 1928); Luis Valcárcel's ''Hay varias Américas" (3.20, 1929); Félix del Valle's "La hora de América" (3.6 and 3.7, 1927); Gerardo Gallego's "No existen nacionalidades en nuestra América" (3.13, 1928); Ricardo Martínez de la Torre's "Por la unión de los pueblos de la América Latina" (3.11, 1928); Victor Raúl Haya dc la Torre's "El problema histórico de nuestra América" (3.12, 1928); and Eugcnio Garro's translations of excerpts from Waldo Frank's work (3.11, 3.12, and 3.13, 1928).

7. This position, according to Hugo Verani, was echoed in the essay El tamaño de la esperanza, also published in 1926, in which Borges wrote, "I want to speak to the criollos; to the people who feel themselves live and die in this land, and not to those who believe that the sun and the moon are in Europe" (cited in HV 41).

8. For example, Mariblanca Sabás Alomá's Americanist piece "Vanguardismo" appeared on June 16, 1928, and on July 28 of the same year, the periodical published Victor Raúl Haya de la Torre's "Proposición de ciudadanía continental latinoamericana."

9. These articles are reprinted in Raúl Antelo's Na Ilha de Marapatá: Mário de Andrade lê os hispano-americanos, 163-88. They include "Poesía argentina" (October 30, 1927), "Literatura modernista argentina" (Parts I, II, and III, April 22 and 29 and May 13, 1928, respectively), "Literatura moderna argentina" (May 20, 1928), and "Bustamante y Ballivián" (December 14, 1930). Mário uses the term modernista here in the Brazilian sense (of the vanguards) rather than in the Hispanic sense. Antelo has also reproduced in this book Mário's annotations in his personal copies of selected Spanish American works.

10. See Mariblanca Sabas Alomá's "Vanguardismo" for references to the new American man ( MPP 275-77). The other references to the new American beings cited here appear, respectively, in Gamaliel Churata's "Indoamericanismo" (1), Evaristo Ribera Chevremont's "Llamamiento" (LHA 237), Ignacio Lasso's "Elanismo" (3); and "Llamamiento" (LHA 237).

11. Though he cites no source, in the retrospective Vida e morte da antropofagia, Raul Bopp attributes these words to Tarsila do Amaral whom he credits with the antropofagia movement's leadership (69). A similar metaphor is used and comparable ideas are developed in "A 'descida' antropófaga," a Revista de Antropofagia piece signed by Oswaldo Costa. Augusto de Campos observes in the introduction to the facsimile edition that this was one of several pseudonyms adopted by Oswald de Andrade.

12. Mariátegui's ideas on Americanism appear primarily in "La unidad de la América Indo-española" ( OC 12: 13-17), "Un congreso de escritores hispanoamericanos" ( OC 12: 17-21), and "¿Existe un pensamiento hispanoamericano?" ( OC 12: 22-26).

13. The piece is signed by Oswaldo Costa, one of Oswald de Andrade's pseudonyms, according to Augusto de Campos. See note 11.

14. Articles with impressions of America by several of these writers appeared in the single issue of the little magazine Imán, edited by Carpentier in Paris in 1931. See Klaus Müller-Bergh's "Alejo Carpentier: Autor y obra en su época" for illuminating material on Carpentier's changing relationship with the Parisian surrealists and the activities surrounding this little magazine.

15. Though the Macunaíma bibliography is dauntingly vast, important work or work related to the concerns of this study includes M. Cavalcanti Proença, Roteiro de Macunaíma; Maria Suzana Camargo, Macunaíma: Ruptura e tradição; Haroldo de Campos, Morfologia do Macunaíma; Telê Porto Ancona Lopez, Macunaíma: A margem e o texto; Gilda de Mello e Souza, O Tupi e o Alaúde: Uma interpretação de Macunaíma; Severino João Albuquerque, "Construction and Destruction in Macunaíma"; and the studies and superb supporting materials presented in the 1988 Coleção Arquivos critical edition of Macunaíma, coordinated by Telê Porto Ancona Lopez.

16. Churata's prefatory note is signed 1927-1957. The Peruvian poet Emilio Vásquez, Churata's contemporary and colleague in the vanguardist Grupo Orkopata, reported in a 1983 interview that Churata wrote most of El pez de oro between 1927 and 1932, during the Orkopata period. Peruvian critics confirm this view: José Varallanos stated that the novel should be ranked "among the best books of the years between 1924 and 1930," in "Churata, su obra y el indigenismo o peruanismo profundo" (405). On the basis of my own in-depth study of Churata's writing in chapter 5 of my doctoral dissertation on the vanguards in Peru, I have omitted from my analysis here references to those sections that appear to have been written after this period.

17. According to Roberto González Echevarría in Alejo Carpentier: The Pilgrim at Home, the novel is a "heterogeneous text, where a series of contradictory forces meet and remain unresolved" (67). See also chapter two of Frank Janney's Alejo Carpentier and His Early Works and Joseph Sommers's " Ecue-Yamba-O: Semillas del arte narrativo de Alejo Carpentier."

18. The original collection included "Leyenda del Volcán," "Leyenda del Cadejo," "Leyenda de la Tatuana," "Leyenda del Sombrerón," and ''Leyenda del tesoro del lugar florido." To the 1948 edition, Asturias added one leyenda, "Los brujos de la tormenta primaveral," and the play Cuculcán . According to the author's own account, however, by 1932, the composition of the latter was well under way. See Asturias's 1932 article, "Las posibilidades de un teatro americano," in Paris 1924-1933 (477-79).

19. Although critical work on Asturias's Leyendas de Guatemala has been quite limited in comparison to the attention given his other works, issues related to my own concerns are addressed by Eladia León Hill, Miguel Angel Asturias: Lo ancestral en su obra literaria; by Dorita Nouhaud, in the introduction to the 1977 critical edition of Tres de cuatro soles and in "Quelle belle chose qu'un soleil d'aurore"; and by René Prieto in numerous articles on Asturias, but particularly "The New American Idiom of Miguel Angel Asturias."

20. In the doctoral dissertation "El poema en prosa en Hispanoaméica: A propósito de Luis Cardoza y Aragón," Elsa Dávila poses the existence in the Pequeña sinfonía of three separate but interwoven narrative threads that recount the journeys of the adult poet, the child poet, and Dante. I agree with the notion of (at least) three perspectives, but I see an interplay more of focalization than of voicing.

21. The connection between Macunaíma's inventiveness and vanguardist aesthetics is made explicit when, after participating in a macumba rite to overcome the giant, the hero is joined by his "fellow celebrants," other vanguardists, and Brazilian modernist figures, including Blaise Cendrars, Manuel Bandeira, and Raul Bopp, among others (64).

22. See, for example, Octavio Paz's telluric characterization of Pablo Neruda's Residencia en la tierra (1925-31) in Paz's Convergences (208).

23. González Echevarría, in particular, notes in Alejo Carpentier: The Pilgrim at Home the use of a "pseudo-scientific" discourse, a language that I would characterize as ethnographic, and also notes that Marinello suggested in his 1937 piece that Carpentier attcmpted to describe Menegildo's world from the outside and from within simultaneously (84-85). In "El criollismo 'de esencias' en Don Goyo y Ecue-Yamba-O, " John S. Brushwood notes an "anthropological tendency" on the part of the author (222), and Sommers comments on vacillations in narrative perspective (232-33).

24. For an analysis of the ways in which anthropological discourse shapes the development of twentieth-century Latin American narrative, see chapter four, "The novel as myth and archive," in González Echevarría's Myth and Archive: A Theory of Latin American Narrative (142-86).

25. González Echevarría notes that in his 1937 piece, Juan Marinello perceived a "crack" in the novel. González Echevarría concurs with this assessment but attributes the "crack" to "a complex narrative problem created by the crisis in the novel and the desire of the avant-garde to produce art from a consciousness that would not be supported by the idées reçues of the West" ( Alejo Carpentier 85).

26. For a recent illuminating survey of Columbus's reincarnations in Western literature and observations on the problematic nature of the "discovery" concept, see Ilan Stavans's Imagining Columbus: The Literary Voyage .

27. My source for this translation is James L. Taylor's Portuguese-English Dictionary .

28. For a meticulous examination of this term's etymology, see R. Magalhies Junior, Dicionário brasileiro de provérbios, locuções e ditos curiosos .

29. Although I have not adhered to it completely, in translating the citations from Macunaíma in this paragraph, I have consulted E. A. Goodland's English translation.

30. For discussions of antropofagia and the "ignoble savage" and their implications, see Benedito Nunes, Oswald, canibal and "Antropofagia ao alcance de todos," and K. David Jackson, "Primitivismo e vanguarda: O 'Mau Selvagem' do modernismo brasileiro," or the English version, "Primitivism and the Avant-Garde: The Ignoble Savage of Brazilian Modernism."

31. Hauser notes that his source for this phrase is the work of Julien Benda.

32. This sense of being always on the move also characterizes the vanguards' portraits of the artist, as I explore in the chapter on this topic.

33. See chapter 1, on performance manifestos, for a discussion of list making as a rhetorical strategy in the vanguardist manifesto.

34. I am indebted for this term to Rosalind Krauss who used it to draw a distinction between a "utopia of vision" of high modernism and a "fleamarket of images" characterizing the postmodern, in a lecture on the postmodern for the Center for Twentieth Century Studies series "Rewriting Modernism," University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, November 5, 1985.

35. For a detailed analysis of images of disintegration and integration in Macunaíma, see Severino João Albuquerque's "Construction and Destruction in Macunaíma ."

36. For a provocative discussion of how de Campos's work and the antropofagia tradition from which it emerges undermine the organicist, genealogical imagery of American culture (of "trunks, branches, and twigs"), see chapter two of Richard Morse's New World Soundings: Culture and Ideology in the Americas, in particular, 88-91.