1. Carl von Scherzer, Travels in the Free States , p. 201.

2. La Gaceta (San Salvador), May 27, 1857.

3. Ibid., June 18, 1852, and February 9, 1859.

4. Ibid., August 11, 1858. The product of this effort was the "Mapa de la República de San Salvador," by Maximilian V. Sonnenstern (New York: Lith. of J. Bien, 1858).

2. La Gaceta (San Salvador), May 27, 1857.

3. Ibid., June 18, 1852, and February 9, 1859.

4. Ibid., August 11, 1858. The product of this effort was the "Mapa de la República de San Salvador," by Maximilian V. Sonnenstern (New York: Lith. of J. Bien, 1858).

2. La Gaceta (San Salvador), May 27, 1857.

3. Ibid., June 18, 1852, and February 9, 1859.

4. Ibid., August 11, 1858. The product of this effort was the "Mapa de la República de San Salvador," by Maximilian V. Sonnenstern (New York: Lith. of J. Bien, 1858).

5. Quoted in E. Bradford Burns, "The Modernization of Underdevelopment: El Salvador, 1858-1931," The Journal of Developing Areas 18 (April 1984): 297.

6. La Gaceta , December 24, 1859.

7. Ibid., May 27, 1857.

6. La Gaceta , December 24, 1859.

7. Ibid., May 27, 1857.

8. "Decreto legislativo de 19 de Abril de 1825 sobre vagos, coimes y mal entretenidos," in Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 1: 181.

9. "Decreto legislativo del 14 de abril de 1841," in Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 1: 199.

10. The regulations of 1843, 1854, and 1855 are found in ibid., 1: 182, 185, 190.

9. "Decreto legislativo del 14 de abril de 1841," in Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 1: 199.

10. The regulations of 1843, 1854, and 1855 are found in ibid., 1: 182, 185, 190.

11. Trade data have to be approached with great caution. Official figures did not value export products at market prices. Instead, an artificial price was set by the tarifa de aforos . Although this feature makes it possible to compare figures over time (it is the equivalent of using deflated data) recordkeepers were not always consistent, and some artificial prices changed from time to time. The tarifa price of indigo remained constant at one peso per pound since the 1850s. The tarifa price of coffee was about twelve pesos per quintal, but occasional variations could be as large as 100 percent. As neither the volume of exports or the complete set of tarifas is available for each year, it is impossible to correct the data to make allowance for changes in the artificial prices. Thus, the total export data are a combination of figures at constant prices and figures with prices subject to changes. Moreover, data collection in the nineteenth century was not the most accurate exercise. Hence, the trade figures discussed in this book ought to be considered as only a rough approximation. An effort was made throughout the text to provide qualitative evidence to confirm the trends observed in the data.

12. La Gaceta , September 13, 1855. Lorenzo López, Estadístical general , p. 99.

13. Ibid., March 9, 1861.

14. Ibid., May 9, 1857.

15. Ibid., March 9, 1961.

12. La Gaceta , September 13, 1855. Lorenzo López, Estadístical general , p. 99.

13. Ibid., March 9, 1861.

14. Ibid., May 9, 1857.

15. Ibid., March 9, 1961.

12. La Gaceta , September 13, 1855. Lorenzo López, Estadístical general , p. 99.

13. Ibid., March 9, 1861.

14. Ibid., May 9, 1857.

15. Ibid., March 9, 1961.

12. La Gaceta , September 13, 1855. Lorenzo López, Estadístical general , p. 99.

13. Ibid., March 9, 1861.

14. Ibid., May 9, 1857.

15. Ibid., March 9, 1961.

16. Mrs. Henry G. Foote, Recollections of Central America and the West Coast of Africa (London: T. C. Newby, 1869), p. 101.

17. Williams, despatch to Department of State, September 22, 1868. DDES, Vol. 1.

18. "Acuerdo del Ministerio de Fomento de 8 de agosto de 1868," in Dionisio González, Instrucción , n.p.

19. Lorenzo López, Estadística general , p. 130.

20. Ibid., p. 167.

19. Lorenzo López, Estadística general , p. 130.

20. Ibid., p. 167.

21. La Gaceta , June 8, 1859.

22. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146.

23. Esteban Castro, "Estadística de la jurisdicción municipal de San Vicente escrita por el bachiller pasante don Esteban Castro por comisión de la Municipalidad de San Vicente, 1878," in Biblioteca Nacional, Documentos y datos históricos , p. 116.

24. Lorenzo López, Estadística general , p. 43; Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146.

25. Carl von Scherzer, Travels , p. 185.

26. G. W. Montgomery, Narrative of a Journey to Guatemala, in Central America, in 1838 (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1839), p. 101. Gustave de Belot, La République du Salvador (Paris: Chez Dentu, 1865), p. 35.

27. All the wages are for the town of Suchitoto. Lorenzo López, Estadistica , p. 131.

28. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , pp. 133 and 146.

29. Lorenzo López, Estadistica , pp. 40, 43, 85.

30. Esteban Castro, "Estadística," p. 94.

31. Mrs. Henry Foote, Recollections , p. 68; La Gaceta , July 19, 1855.

32. Williams, despatch to Department of State, January 26, 1867, DDES, Vol. 1.

33. Chap. 6 will be entirely devoted to the liberal reforms that privatized all land. Liberal and conservative attitudes toward ejidos and communal lands will be discussed in that context.

34. La Gaceta , December 17, 1847.

35. Derek Noel Kerr, "The Role of the Coffee Industry in the History of El Salvador, 1840-1906" (M.A. thesis, University of Calgary, 1977), pp. 30-31.

36. Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 1: 141.

37. La Gaceta , January 4, 1855. The granting of ejido land was regulated by legislation issued by the state of El Salvador in 1827. Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 1: 140.

38. Ibid., January 20, March 13, 1858; Lorenzo López, Estadistica , pp. 10, 11, and 140.

37. La Gaceta , January 4, 1855. The granting of ejido land was regulated by legislation issued by the state of El Salvador in 1827. Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 1: 140.

38. Ibid., January 20, March 13, 1858; Lorenzo López, Estadistica , pp. 10, 11, and 140.

39. Gaceta oficial , February 19, 1862.

40. Mrs. Henry Foote, Recollections , p. 84. El Constitucional , March 9, 1865.

41. "Acuerdo Legislativo de 3 de Febrero de 1867," and "Decreto presidencial de 1 de Junio de 1869," in Dionisio González, Instrucción , n.p. El Faro Salvadoreño , March 1, 1869.

42. Hubert H. Bancroft, History of Central America , 3: 400.

43. Lorenzo López, Estadística , p. 126.

44. "Decreto Legislativo de 1 de Marzo de 1847," in Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 2: 221.

45. "Decreto gubernativo de 1 de Octubre de 1855," in Isidro Menéndez, Recopilación , 1: 145. This decree superseded another from June 17, 1835, that charged government officials with the identification of baldíos. Recopilación , 1: 141.

46. La Gaceta , October 1, October 29, November 19, November 26, 1847.

47. Ibid., June 28, 1850; July 13, 1849; and December 27, 1850.

48. Ibid., March 23, 1861.

49. Ibid., February 6, 1858.

46. La Gaceta , October 1, October 29, November 19, November 26, 1847.

47. Ibid., June 28, 1850; July 13, 1849; and December 27, 1850.

48. Ibid., March 23, 1861.

49. Ibid., February 6, 1858.

46. La Gaceta , October 1, October 29, November 19, November 26, 1847.

47. Ibid., June 28, 1850; July 13, 1849; and December 27, 1850.

48. Ibid., March 23, 1861.

49. Ibid., February 6, 1858.

46. La Gaceta , October 1, October 29, November 19, November 26, 1847.

47. Ibid., June 28, 1850; July 13, 1849; and December 27, 1850.

48. Ibid., March 23, 1861.

49. Ibid., February 6, 1858.

50. As late as 1874, nine baldíos were claimed although only five were recognized as such. República de El Salvador, Ministerio de Hacienda y Guerra, Memoria de Hacienda, 1875 (San Salvador: Tipografía Nacional, 1875), p. 49.

51. Great Britain, Abstracts of Reports of Various Countries and Places for the Year 1855 , pp. 167 and 168.

52. La Gaceta , May 25, 1849.

53. Gustave de Belot, La République , p. 49.

54. Esteban Castro, "Estadística," p. 92.

55. Manuel Gallardo, "Autobiografía," pp. 56-75.

56. La Gaceta , January 23, 30; February 6, 13, 16, 1861.

57. Ibid., February 20, 23, 27, 1861.

56. La Gaceta , January 23, 30; February 6, 13, 16, 1861.

57. Ibid., February 20, 23, 27, 1861.

58. Gustave de Belot, La République , p. 50.

59. Carl von Scherzer, Travels , p. 195.

60. In 1875 LaFerriére reported that a French citizen had a steam-operated sugar mill in the environs of San Salvador and praised him for his courage. LaFerriére, De Paris à Guatémala , p. 239.

61. Mrs. Henry Grant Foote, Recollections , p. 92.

62. Bureau of American Republics, Handbook of Salvador , p. 60.

63. La Gaceta , March 19, 1859.

64. Ibid., November 6, 1862.

63. La Gaceta , March 19, 1859.

64. Ibid., November 6, 1862.

65. Williams, despatch to Department of State, January 26 and September 22, 1867, DDES, vol. 1.

66. The liberal reforms will be discussed in detail in chap. 6.