1. Paul Rabinow, French Modern (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1989), 21-23. Greenhalgh points out that the rise of anthropology as a discipline occurred between 1878 and 1889 in Paris. See Geenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas, 86.

2. Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York, 1983), xi, 68, and 143.

3. Fabian argues that the ethnographer and the anthropologist see native society as a tableau vivant . See Fabian, 67.

4. Chicago Tribune, 17 June 1893.

5. Raoul Girardot, L'Idée coloniale en France (Paris, 1972), 83.

6. L'Exposition de 1889, 15 March 1889.

7. Charles Lemire, "La Transformation de l'exposition coloniale de 1900, L'Exposition des colonies, 1 January 1898.

8. Charles Lemire, "L'Exposition des colonies en 1900," L'Exposition des colonies, 1 August 1897.

9. Burton Benedict, "The Anthropology of World's Fairs," in The Anthropology of World's Fairs, ed. Burton Benedict (London and Berkeley, 1983), 2.

10. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair (Chicago and London, 1984), 5 and 235. Hannah Arendt traced the origins of "race-thinking" to Arthur de Gobineau's Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, published in 1853, arguing that by 1900, Gobineau's text had become "a kind of standard work for race theories in history." See Hannah Arendt, Imperialism, 4th ed. (San Diego, New York, London, 1968), 50-51.

11. Benedict, "The Anthropology of World's Fairs," 43-45.

12. Chicago Tribune, 21 June 1893. During the latter part of the century the Ottoman government had launched a reform to industrialize the country and exhibited its machine-produced goods (especially textiles) in Western cities. Yet because the machines themselves were European inventions, the production processes of Ottoman industry were not brought to the fairs.

13. A. Chirac, "Le Palais du Bey," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée (Paris, 1867), 42.

14. L'Illustration, 23 June 1878.

15. Chicago Tribune, 8 April 1893.

16. J. Charles-Roux, Les Colonies françaises, l'organisation et le fonctionnement de l'exposition des colonies et pays de protectorat (Paris, 1902), 210-211.

17. L'Illustration, 15 September 1900.

18. Le Figaro, 19 May 1900.

19. The "people as freaks" category, however, existed in the Islamic quarters of the exhibitions as well. For example, Cairo Street in Chicago in 1893 was crowded with wrestlers, acrobats, sword-swallowers, fire-eaters, snake charmers, and fortune-tellers. See the Chicago Tribune, 5 April 1893.

20. Ben. C. Truman, History of the World's Fair (Philadelphia, 1893), 558.

21. "Le Palais de l'Egypte," L'Exposition de Paris (Paris, 1903), 3:6; Julien Tiersot, Musiques pittoresques, promenades musicales. L'exposition de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 95-98.

22. P. Jorde, "Le Théâtre du pavilion ottoman," L'Exposition de Paris, 3:161.

23. See, for example, H. Lavoix, "L'Orient à l'Exposition universelle," L'Illustration, 22 July 1867; L'Illustration, 18 May 1878; and P. Jorde, "Le Théâtre du pavilion ottoman," L'Exposition de Paris, 3:161. These views are uninformed by the serious investigations of many nineteenth-century historians of music, who included non-Western music in their publications. For further discussion, see Philip V. Bohlman, "The European Discovery of Music in the Islamic World and the 'Non-Western' in Nineteenth-Century Music History,'' The Journal of Musicology 5, no. 2 (Spring 1987): 147-163.

24. Truman, History of the World's Fair, 558.

25. Tiersot, L'Exposition de 1889, 78.

26. Anouar Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains égyptiens en France au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1970), 193-194.

27. Eugène-Meichior de Vogue, "A Travers l'exposition," Revue des deux mondes 95 (1889): 451.

28. World's Fair Puck, 4 September 1893.

29. Zeynep Çelik and Leila Kinney, "Ethnography and Exhibitionism at the Expositions Universelles, " Assemblage, no. 13 (1990): 34-59.

30. Sylviane Leprun, Le Théâtre des colonies (Paris, 1986), 70-72.

31. René Maizeroy, "Les Théâtres éphémères à l'exposition, le théâtre égyptien," Figaro illustré, no. 124 (July 1900): 142-143.

32. Maizeroy, 143-144. The Thousand and One Nights had been instrumental in shaping European ideas about Islam since the early eighteenth century. First translated into French by Antoine Galland, it was published in twelve volumes between 1704 and 1717. During the eighteenth century alone it was reissued in French twenty times. German and English translations appeared in the 1710s, and the book was translated into eight other European languages in the nineteenth century. See Georges May, Les Mille et une nuits d'Antoine Galland (Paris, 1986), 9-10.

33. Léon Dussert, "Le Palais algérien," Revue de l'Exposition universelle de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 1:208.

34. Figaro illustré, no. 124 (July 1900): 142-144.

35. See, for example, the descriptions of the workshops in the Tunisian section of the 1889 exposition, in E. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889 (Paris, 1900), 2:245.

36. "Nos soldats coloniaux à l'exposition," L'Exposition de Paris, 2:25.

37. Docteur Warnier, "Exposition de l'Algérie," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 182-183.

38. L'Illustration, 18 May 1878.

39. Paris illustrée (1889): 449.

40. Paris illustrée (1889): 617.

41. The Vanishing White City (Chicago, 1893), caption.

42. Chicago Tribune, 28 May 1893.

43. Charles-Roux, Les Colonies françaises, 209.

44. The Vanishing White City, caption.

45. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 2:141.

46. Le Figaro, 3 July 1867.

47. The Illustrated London News, 6 July 1867. Although Paris in the 1860s was filled with foreigners from all corners of the world—among them the Young Ottomans, liberal Ottoman intellectuals who were in exile in Paris—their numbers escalated because of the exhibition. According to one journalist, "Paris had never been so populated with Turks" (See L'Illustration, 6 July 1867). Nevertheless, cosmopolitan Paris showed at least as much interest in the sultan as it had in the first Turkish ambassador, Mehmed Çelebi Efendi, in 1727. For an account of Mehmed Efendi's visit, see Fatma Müge Göçek, East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century (New York and Oxford, 1987).

48. The Illustrated London News, 6 July 1867, and Ruzname-i Ayine-i Vatan 35, 1 Rebiülevvel 1284 (3 July 1867).

49. L'Illustration, 6 July 1867.

50. Le Figaro, 19 June 1867.

51. Charles Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition universelle de 1867 (Paris, 1867), 14.

52. Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad (New York, 1984), 102.

53. Twain, 101.

54. The entry of the empress to the Palais de l'Industrie on the arm of the composed Abdülaziz was described at length in the press. See, for example, Le Figaro, 7 July 1867.

55. Le Figaro, 19 June 1867.

56. Le Figaro, 7 July 1867.

57. L'Illustration, 6 July 1867.

58. See: Zeynep Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century (Seattle and London, 1986), especially chapter 3.

59. Osman Nuri [Ergin], Mecelle-i umur-u belediye (Istanbul, 1914-1922). 1:1013.

60. A Turkish journalist visiting Cairo during the late 1860s described, with admiration and envy, its ongoing transformation into a "little Paris." See Basiretçi 'Ali, Istanbul'da yarim asirlik vekayi-i muhimme (Half a century of important events in Istanbul) (Istanbul, 1325 [1907]), 28.

61. Janet Abu-Lughod, Cairo: One Thousand and One Years of City Victorious (Princeton, N.J., 1971), chapter 7.

62. Nubar Pasha, Mémoires de Nubar Pasha (Beirut, 1983), 312.

63. Nubar Pasha, 312.

64. Louis Béhier, L'Egypte de 1798 à 1900 (Paris, n.d.), 182.

65. Iran's diplomatic representation in major European cities, as well as in Istanbul, dates from the1850s. See Bakhash, Iran, 28.

66. Bakhash, 48-49.

67. Bakhash, 114-115.

68. L'Illustration, 28 July 1900.

69. See Commission des sciences et arts d'Egypte, Description de l'Egypte, 9 vols. (Paris, 1809-1828).

70. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 185.

71. Edmond, 182.

72. Edmond, 183.

73. Edmond, 200-201.

74. Auguste Mariette, Aperçu de l'histoire ancienne d'Egypte pour l'intelligence des monuments exposés dans le temple du Parc égyptien, (Paris, 1867), 7-9.

75. L'Aperçu de l'histoire surveys Egyptian history from the early kingdoms to the official adoption of Christianity in 381; it is a reprint, with a new introduction, of a text first published in Cairo. The Description du Parc égyptien, in contrast, records the Egyptian buildings and the artifacts they sheltered, with an emphasis on the "temple," the representation of antiquity. Mariette-Bey's La Galerie de l'Egypte ancienne à l'exposition rétrospective du Trocadéro (Paris, 1878) is again a survey of the antique artifacts in the Egyptian gallery in 1878.

76. Auguste Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien (Paris, 1867), 13.

77. Although Salaheddin Bey did not acknowledge Marie de Launay's contribution, several paragraphs from Marie de Launay's article in L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, titled "Turquie, établissement du parc" (pp. 199-202), appear in La Turquie à l'Exposition universelle de 1867 . Marie de Launay was a translator and the author of many Ottoman publications; he may have contributed to Salaheddin Bey's book. Or if there was plagiarism on Salaheddin Bey's part, it may not have been considered a serious issue. In any event, it is significant that the intellectual activities of an Ottoman administrator were linked with those of a European consultant.

78. Even when talking about the uniqueness of Ottoman architecture, Salaheddin Bey reflected the Westernization process that characterized this era. He was so much at ease with the French vocabulary (and the French way of thinking as expressed through the language) that he did not refer to the mosque-pavilion as a mosque, but as a chapelle-sepulchrale .

79. Salaheddin Bey, La Turquie à l'Exposition universelle de 1867 (Paris, 1867), 139.

80. Salaheddin Bey, 36.

81. Salaheddin Bey, 37.

82. Salaheddin Bey, 36. The description is largely a fiction. For example, the sky is not always blue in most parts of Turkey, and certainly not in Bursa, and Ottoman culture is not particularly sea oriented. The picturesque image of Bursa painted here, however, agrees with contemporary descriptions of this town.

83. Salaheddin Bey, 36.

84. Salaheddin Bey, 142-144.

85. Osman Hamdi acted as the commissary general for the Ottoman Empire in the 1873 Vienna exposition.

86. Linda Nochlin, "The Imaginary Orient," Art in America 71, no. 5 (May 1983): 121-123.

87. Said argues that such "repressed" and "resistant" histories were omitted by Orientalism for the most part. See Edward Said, "Orientalism Reconsidered," 94.

88. For further detailed discussion of Osman Hamdi's work, see Mustafa Cezar, Sanatta batiya açilis ve Osman Hamdi (Exposure to the West in art and Osman Hamdi) (Istanbul, 1971); Vasif Kortun, "Osman Hamdi üzerine yeni notlar," Tarih ve Toplum 41 (May 1987): 25-26; and especially Ipek Aksügür Duben, "Osman Hamdi ve Orientalism," Tarih ve Toplum 41 (May 1987): 27-34.

89. The chapters are divided according to types. For example, in the Constantinople section, first the professional types ( aiwaz, caikdji, sakka, hamal ) are listed; religious types ( derviche mevlevi, derviche baktachi, and molla ) and women follow. A short text explains the role of each type in social life, gives average salaries, and so forth.

90. Hamdy Bey and Marie de Launay, Les Costumes populaires de la Turquie en 1873 (Constantinople, 1873), 7. Although Osman Hamdi's name does not appear in the book, Cezar claims that Osman Hamdi worked on this publication, as well as on Usul-u mimari-i Osmani. See Cezar, Sanatta batiya açilis, 143.

91. Hamdy and de Launay, 6.

92. Hamdy and de Launay, 5.

93. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, Usul-u mimari-i Osmani (Constantinople, 1873), vi. The following discussion of Usul-u mimari-i Osmani is excerpted from my Remaking of Istanbul, 148-149.

94. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, 7.

95. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, 15.

96. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, 17.

97. These albums are in the Prints and Photographs section of the Library of Congress.

98. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 27 March 1893.

99. William Allen, "The Abdul Hamid II Collection," History of Photography 8, no. 2 (April-June 1984): 119.

100. Quoted in Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe (Princeton, N.J., 1963), 138.

101. Hourani, Arabic Thought, 83.

102. Quoted in Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe, 141.

103. Mahmud 'Umar al-Bajuri, al-durar al-bahiyya fi al-rihla al-urubiyya (Description of an Arab's journey); see Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 207.

104. Louca, 106.

105. Louca, 227 and 233.

106. Muhammad Amin Fikri, Irshad al-alibba ila mahasin 'uruba (The guide to the virtues of Europe); see Louca, 202-203.

107. Louca, 213.

108. Sadullah Efendi, "1878 Paris Ekspozisyonu," in Ebuziya Tevfik, ed., Numune-i edebiyat-i Osmaniye (Istanbul, 1302 [1884]), 298-301.

109. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 224.

110. The tradition of describing European settings in the language of fairy tales goes back to the 1727 Sefaretname of Mehmed Çelebi Efendi, the first Ottoman ambassador to Paris. Sent to Paris to document Western advances, Mehmed Efendi became fascinated by French architecture. He described the buildings, the gardens, the palaces, and especially the fountains in the language of fairy tales. See Göçek, East Encounters West .

111. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 233.

112. Ahmad Zaki, al-safar ila al-mu'tamar (The trip to the conference); see Louca, 212.

113. Louca, 224.

114. Sabah, 9 Muharrem 1307 (5 September 1889).

115. Halid Ziya Usakligil, Kirk yil (Istanbul, 1969), 263.

116. Ahmed Mithat, Avrupa'da bir cevelan (Istanbul, 1307 [1889]), 486-499.

117. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 106.

118. Louca, 219.

119. Louca, 232.

120. Diyojen, no. 101, 4 Mart 1288 (16 March 1872).