1. Published biographical sources on Shekhtel include Evgeniia I. Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel ' (Moscow, 1973); Catherine Cooke, "Fedor Shekhtel: An Architect and His Clients in Turn-of-Century Moscow," Architectural Association Files (London) 5-6 (1984): 5-31; Evgeniia I. Kirichenko, "F. O. Shekhtel'," in Zodchie Moskvy XV-XIX vv , ed. Iu. S. Iaralov and S. M. Zemtsov, pp. 276-87 (Moscow, 1981); M. P. Chekhov, Vokrug Chekhova (Moscow, 1964), pp. 276-87; and Kirichenko, Bol'shaia Sadovaia ulitsa, 4 (Moscow, 1989).

2. For information on Shekhtel's early interest in the theater and his work with Lentovskii, sec M. P. Chekhov, pp. 279, 323; Kirichenko, "F. O. Shekhtel'," p. 278, and "Fedor Shekhtel: K 125-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia," Arkhitektura SSSR , 1984, no. 3:86. Previously unpublished sketches by Shekhtel for theater and set designs in the 1880s are discussed within the context of his early work for the theater in E. I. Kirichenko, "Teatral'nye raboty F. O. Shekhtelia 1880-kh godov v muzeiakh Moskvy," in Muzei 10 , ed. A. S. Loginova, pp. 162-73. The sketches prefigure much in his mature architectural work, particularly the design of the Stepan Riabushinskii house.

3. For a recent account of Shekhtel's architectural apprenticeship, see Kirichenko, Bol'shaia Sadovaia ulitsa , 4, pp. 13-18.

4. Iubileinyi spravochnik Imperatorskoi Akademii khudozhestv , 1864-1914 (Petersburg, 1915), 2:395. Kirichenko, in "F. O. Shekhtel," suggests that Shekhtel designed the exterior of the Paradise Theater (277).

5. M. P. Chekhov, Vokrug Chekhova , pp. 278-79.

6. Kirichenko describes Shekhtel's formal attestation as a builder in Fedor Shekhtel , p. 10, citing documents in the Central State Archive of Literature and Art (TsGALI); she also lists Shekhtel's work before 1893 (138).

7. Ibid., pp. 10, 19-23. Kirichenko analyzes the plan of the Zinaida Morozova house as an early example of Shekhtel's emphasis on centrality in "O Printsipakh organizatsii prostranstvennoi sredy intererov osobniakov F. O. Shekhtelia, rubezh XIX-XX vv.," Arkhitekturnoe nasledstvo 34 (1986): 246-48. The Morozov house was the first of Shekhtel's buildings to be widely publicized in the architectural press ( Zodchii , 1899, plate 33; and Arkhitekturnye motivy , 1899, no. 1, plates 5, 6).

6. Kirichenko describes Shekhtel's formal attestation as a builder in Fedor Shekhtel , p. 10, citing documents in the Central State Archive of Literature and Art (TsGALI); she also lists Shekhtel's work before 1893 (138).

7. Ibid., pp. 10, 19-23. Kirichenko analyzes the plan of the Zinaida Morozova house as an early example of Shekhtel's emphasis on centrality in "O Printsipakh organizatsii prostranstvennoi sredy intererov osobniakov F. O. Shekhtelia, rubezh XIX-XX vv.," Arkhitekturnoe nasledstvo 34 (1986): 246-48. The Morozov house was the first of Shekhtel's buildings to be widely publicized in the architectural press ( Zodchii , 1899, plate 33; and Arkhitekturnye motivy , 1899, no. 1, plates 5, 6).

8. According to Ilia Bondarenko, Mikhail Vrubel painted two panels for the A. V. Morozov house: one was Faust and Disciple ; the other depicted the flight of Mephistopheles and Faust over the city at night. See "Vospominaniia I. E. Bondarenko o F. O. Shekhtele," Arkhiektura SSSR , 1984, no. 3:93. Vrubel's glass panel for the house of Savva Morozov is illustrated in V. A. Tikhanova, ed., Russkoe dekorativnoe iskusstvo (Moscow, 1965), 3:361, 364. Two of Vrubel's designs for glass windows (including one belonging to Shekhtel) were published in Mir iskusstva , 1903, no. 10-11:157-58. They depict scenes of medieval knights in armor, surrounded by damsels.

9. As was frequently the case in Moscow, the wife held legal title to the house. The de facto owner was M. S. Kuznetsov, a porcelain manufacturer (see n. 12).

10. The text of Chekhov's letter to Shekhtel (13 April 1896) appears in A. P. Chekhov, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii i pisem: Pis'ma (Moscow, 1978), 6:140-42; Shekhtel's reply is quoted on page 476 of the same volume. According to an 1897 item in the journal Stroitel ', "A society for promoting entertainment accessible to all is being formed among representatives of Moscow's intelligentsia and capitalists, and it will begin its activity with the construction of a colossal 'people's palace' or 'people's house,'" to provide enlightened entertainment not just for the elite but also for the general public. The architect was identified as a Mr. Sh[ekhtel] ( Stroitel ', 1897, no. 6:227-28).

11. Shekhtel's plan for this new version of the People's House was published in Zodchii , 1902, no. 14:172; a sketch of the building was reproduced in Zodchii that same year, plate 16.

12. For the role of M. S. Kuznetsov in porcelain manufacturing and design in the new style, see L. V. Andreev, "Farforovaia promyshlennost'," in Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka, 1895-1907 , ed. A. D. Alekseeva (Moscow, 1969), 2:363-67. Cf. also L. V. Andreev, Sovetskii farfor. 1920-1930-e gody (Moscow, 1975), pp. 7-15.

13. For a discussion of this structural form, see M. A. Kozlovskaia, "Konstruktivnye struktury i arkhitkturnye formy grazhdanskikh zdanii," in Konstruktsii i arkhitekturnaia forma v russkom zodchestve XIX-nachala XX vv , ed. Iu. S. Lebedev (Moscow, 1977), pp. 128-42 and, with reference to the Kuznetsov building, p. 136.

14. Typical of gigantomania in church construction during the late nineteenth century, the structure would have dwarfed its modest surroundings (cf. photograph of the extant sixteenth-century monastery church in William Craft Brumfield, Gold in Azure [Boston, 1983], p. 152). break

15. The chapel, consecrated in 1902, is listed in M. Aleksandrovskii, Ukazatel' moskovskikh tserkvei (Moscow, 1915), p. 75. Although this project and others are omitted from the list in Fedor Shekhtel' , pp. 138-40, Kirichenko provides the most thorough published inventory of the architect's work.

16. In 1900 Shekhtel also built a dacha for Levenson, thus maintaining a practice of designing domestic and commercial projects for the same client.

17. The Vienna firm of Gebruder Thonet, which specialized in bentwood furniture, had licensed outlets and factories in Russia, as did the firm of Jacob and Joseph Kohn (also of Vienna). No Russian architect is known to have designed for them, but furniture from the Kohns' Moscow factory was included in the exhibit of the "new style" at the end of 1902 in Moscow. See Olga Strugova, "Gnutaia mebel' Toneta," Dekorativnoe iskusstvo , 1986, no. 6:48.

18. Printers were among the most highly skilled and best remunerated workers in Russia. Their professional publication, Naborshchik (Compositor), had as its motto a quotation from Ruskin, which read in the Russian translation: "Life without labor is thievery; labor without art is barbarism." Mark Steinberg analyzes the rapid development of the Russian printing industry at the turn of the century in "Consciousness and Conflict in a Russian Industry: The Printers of St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1855-1905" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1987); references to the Levenson firm are on pp. 123, 174, and 208-9. Levenson's paternalistic system is described in Tovarishchestvo A. A. Levenson, Istoricheskii ocherk i opisanie masterskikh, 1881-1903 (Moscow, 1903).

19. The most detailed source on the Riabushinskii family and the growth of the firm is contained in Torgovoe i promyshlennoe delo Riabushinskikh (Moscow, 1913). See also P. A. Buryshkin, Moskva kupecheskaia (New York, 1954), pp. 189-93. Western sources with extensive information on the Riabushinskii family and the Moscow merchant milieu include Jo Ann Ruckman, The Moscow Business Elite (De Kalb, Ill., 1984); and Alfred Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill, N. C., 1982).

20. Walcot's work appeared frequently in Zodchii at the turn of the century, and in Arkhitekturnye motivy (see his sketch for a private house in the latter journal, 1899, no. 4, plate 32).

21. Ian Latham, Joseph Maria Olbrich (New York, 1980), p. 149.

22. The interior of the house is well preserved, although some changes occurred after Maksim Gorkii and his family moved there in 1931. The association of the building with Gorkii has guaranteed its proper maintenance. See M. B. Kozmin, ed., V dome na Maloi Nikitskoi (Moscow, 1968).

23. This connection is supported by Shekhtel's possession of an 1899 sketch by Mikhail Vrubel for a ceramic dish on the theme of Sadko, one to which Vrubel, who had worked with Shekhtel in decorating the interior of various Morozov houses, frequently turned. This particular sketch was intended for production by the M. S. Kuznetsov firm (another Shekhtel client). See E. P. Gomberg-Berzhbinskaia, ed., Vrubel': Perepiska: Vospominaniia o khudozhnike (Leningrad, 1976), pp. 257, 354. For a reproduction of the design, see Mikhail Guerman, Mikhail Vrubel ' (Leningrad, 1985), pp. 136, 239-40.

24. Zodchii , 1904, no. 15:181. The decorative tendril pattern mentioned in the following paragraph appears in the interior of Shekhtel's Church of the Savior at Ivanovo-Voznesensk (1898). See Zodchii , 1905, no. 5:49.

25. The Riabushinskii attempt to forge a new political coalition representing the interests of a Russian bourgeoisie is set forth in James West, "The Riabushinskii Circle: Russian Industrialists in Search of a Bourgeoisie, 1909-1914," Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 32 (1984): 358-77.

26. John Bowlt, "Nikolai Ryabushinsky, Playboy of the Eastern World," Apollo , December 1983:486-93.

27. See Ivonne d'Axe, "Sovremennaia Moskva," Zodchii , 1904, no. 18:213; and Vladimir Apyshkov, Ratsional'noe v noveishei arkhitekture (Petersburg, 1905), p. 54.

28. For a sampling of opinion on Shekhtel's pavilions in the British architectural press (in the Studio, Builder, Architectural Review , and Art Journal ), see Cooke, "Fedor Shekhtel," pp. 5-6. For a more detailed account of the pavilions, see her "Shekhtel in Kelvingrove and Mackintosh on the Petrovka," Scottish Slavonic Review 10 (1988): 177-205.

29. A sketch of the Kharitonenko design appeared in Zodchii , 1899, no. 5:55, and a photograph of the triumphal gates in 1899, no. 4:43.

30. Zodchii , 1902, no. 1:14

31. Quoted in Cooke, "Fedor Shekhtel," p. 5.

32. Cooke states that Shekhtel spent four months in Glasgow (ibid.), but Zodchii , 1902, no. 1, mentions only four supervisory visits.

33. Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel' , p. 49.

34. Ibid., p. 72.

33. Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel' , p. 49.

34. Ibid., p. 72.

35. One is reminded of the Viennese approach to comprehensive design, particularly in the collaboration between Josef Hoffmann, Kolo Moser, and others associated with the Wiener Werkstätte. See Eduard Sekler, Josef Hoffmann (Princeton, 1985), p. 33, with Hermann Bahr's dictum from 1898 that "everything in a room must be like an instrument in an orchestra."

36. Kirichenko analyzes the Derozhinskaia hall as an element comparable to core space in previous work by Shekhtel (the Morozova and Riabushinskii houses) in "O printsipakh continue

organizatsii prostranstvennoi sredy intererov osobniakov F. O. Shekhtelia (rubezh XIX-XX vv.), Arkhitekturnoe nasledstvo 34 (1986): 250-51, 253.

37. Constantin Stanislavsky, My Life in Art (Boston, 1924), pp. 388-89.

38. For references to Chichagov's theater construction, see Elena A. Borisova, Russkaia arkhitektura vtoroi poloviny XIX veka (Moscow, 1979), p. 309; and Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel ', pp. 78-79.

39. Each of these works by Mackintosh is discussed and illustrated in Robert Macleod, Charles Rennie Mackintosh (London, 1983), pp. 79-85 and 65-67.

40. Stanislavsky, My Life in Art , p. 388.

41. Ibid., p. 386.

40. Stanislavsky, My Life in Art , p. 388.

41. Ibid., p. 386.

42. See M. Kopshitser, Savva Mamontov (Moscow, 1972), pp. 218-23; and Beverly Kean, All the Empty Palaces (New York, 1983), pp. 91-93.

43. Shekhtel's use of motifs from the Russian north evolved from an adaptation of traditional forms in nineteenth-century exhibition architecture, from the 1872 Polytechnical Exhibition to the 1896 Nizhni Novgorod fair. See Elena A. Borisova, "Neorusskii stil' v russkoi arkhitekture predrevoliutsionnykh let," in Iz istorii russkogo iskusstva vtoroi poloviny XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow, 1978), pp. 63-64.

44. Zodchii , 1905, no. 1:13-14.

45. For the cultural significance of the Nizhni Novgorod exposition of 1896 and Mamontov's involvement (together with that of the Abramtsevo community) in the Pavilion of the Far North, see Borisova, Russkaia arkhitektura , pp. 262-66.

46. From a letter to Vasnetsov, 22 October 1902. See Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel ', p. 49.

47. See Fumio Hashimoto, Architecture in the Shoin Style (Tokyo, 1981), pp. 132-33, 233.

48. Macleod, Charles Rennie Mackintosh , pp. 25, 57-59. See also references to Japanese art in Europe at the turn of the century in Stephan Tschudi Madsen, Sources of Art Nouveau (New York, 1976), pp. 188ff.

49. Photographs of the original station interior are published in Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel ', pp. 59-60.

50. Zodchii , 1905, no. 1:14.

51. Kozlovskaia, "Konstruktivnye struktury," p. 137.

52. Evgeniia Kirichenko discusses the relations between Shekhtel's design for Boiars' Court and the Kitai Gorod wall in Moskva na rubezhe dvukh stoletii (Moscow, 1977), p. 99.

53. Despite claims in some Soviet sources that Shekhtel and other architects at the beginning of the century designed skeletal structures, Kozlovskaia insists that skeletal frames in the strict technical sense were rare in Russian architecture. See "Konstruktivnye struktury," p. 139, for a reference to the Riabushinskii bank and p. 155 for a general discussion of the "carcass" system.

54. Ludwig Munz and Gustav Kunstler, Adolf Loos: Pioneer of Modern Architecture (New York, 1966), pp. 111-15.

55. Kirichenko briefly notes subsequent modifications to the building in Fedor Shekhtel ', p. 97.

56. The commercial use of the ground floor of apartment buildings had become common by the end of the century in Moscow; it is closely related to developments in construction technology. See Kozlovskaia, "Konstruktivnye struktury," p. 129.

57. Shekhtel designed several other apartment buildings between 1911 and 1917, but none were built. See Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel ', p. 140.

58. The plan of the building was by the architect I. S. Blagoveshchenskii. Shamshin, dissatisfied with the original design, commissioned Shekhtel to redo the exterior (Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel ', p. 110).

59. See Rayner Banham, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1980), pp. 151-52. Russia had nothing comparable to the Werkbund aesthetic in Germany at this time, although certain major industrial structures in Petersburg emulated contemporary German design.

60. Buryshkin, Moskva kupecheskaia , pp. 288-92; and West, "The Riabushinskii Circle," pp. 362-63.

61. Iu. P. Volchok, "Stanovlenie novykh tektonicheskikh sistem v promyshlennoi arkhitekture," in Lebedev, Konstruktsii i arkhitekturnaia forma , pp. 109-26.

62. Kozlovskaia, "Konstruktivnye struktury," p. 155.

63. For a comparison of the buildings by Shekhtel and the Barkhin brothers, see Brumfield, Gold in Azure , pp. 343-44.

64. See Kirichenko's list in Fedor Shekhtel ', p. 140.

65. For 1905-1906 Kirichenko lists only one Shekhtel project, cryptically identified as the "Shekhtel dacha at Odintsovo" (presumably Odintsovo-Arkhangelskoe). Savva Morozov purchased an estate there in 1892, and the main house was one of Shekhtel's earliest projects. See E. N. Podiapol'skaia, ed., Pamiatniki arkhitektury moskovskoi oblasti (Moscow, 1975), I:119.

66. See the plan and illustrations in Marika Hausen, et al., Saarinen in Finland (Helsinki, 1984), pp. 28-33.