1. Major historical works according to year of publication are Yamato Ichihashi, The Japanese in the United States (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1932; New York: Arno Press, 1969); Masakazu Iwata, "The Japanese Immigrant in California Agriculture," Agricultural History 36 (January 1962), 25-37; Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962; Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1966); Hilary Conroy and T. Scott Miyakawa, eds., East Across the Pacific (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Press, 1972); John Modell, The Economces and Politics of Racial Accommodation: The Japanese of Los Angeles, 1900-1942 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977); Yasuo Wakatsuki, "Japanese Emigration to the United States, 1866-1924: A Monograph," Perspectives in American History 12 (1979), 389-516; Evelyn Nakano Glenn, Issei, Nisei, War Bride (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); Yuji Ichioka, The Issei (New York: The Free Press, 1988); and Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993). The following also should be noted: Emma Gee, ed., Counterpoint: Perspectives on Asian America (Los Angeles: Asian American Studies Center, UCLA, 1976); Roger Daniel's, ed., The Asian Experience in North America, 47 vols. (New York: Arena Press, 1979); Lucia Change and Enda Bonacich, eds., Labor Immigration Under Capitalism: Asian Workers in the United States Before Worm War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Ronald Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1989); Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991); Gary Y. Okihiro, Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994); and Lloyd H. Fisher, The Harvest Labor Market in California (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953). Important works in other fields include Sylvia Junko Yanagisako, Transforming the Past: Tradition and Kinship Among Japanese Americans (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985); S. Frank Miyamoto, Social Solidarity Among the Japanese in Seattle (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1984; first published 1939); Akemi Kikumura, Through Harsh Winters: The Life of a Japanese Immigrant Woman (Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp, 1981); Harry H. L. Kitano, Japanese Americans: The Evolution of a Subculture (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976); and Frank F. Chuman, The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese-Americans (Del Mar, CA: Publishers Inc., 1976).

2. See his book The Issei. Two significant listings of Japanese language sources are Yuji Ichioka, Yasuo Sakata, Nobuya Tsuchida, and Eri Yasuhara, comps., A Buried Past: An Annotated Bibliography of the Japanese American Research Project Collection (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974); and Yasuo Sakata, comp., Fading Footsteps of the Issei: An Annotated Bibliography of the Manuscript Holdings of the Japanese American Research Project Collection (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center, UCLA Center for Japanese Studies, and Japanese American National Museum, 1992).

3. Kaigai ryoken kafu hennohyo * shintatsu (Passports issued and returned for travel abroad), 204 unbound vols. (1879-1921), Record Group (hereafter, RG) 3.8.5.8, Diplomatic Record Center, Foreign Ministry of Japan, Tokyo (hereafter, DFMJ), is a listing by ken of persons who applied for passports according to country of destination. A quick perusal of the "reason for travel" of individuals indicates that particularly after 1900, when the Japanese government more actively began to limit the number of passports issued to laborers, there was an increase of persons traveling as "other than laborers" from all areas of Japan to the United States. Based on Japan's annual statistics, Yuji Ichioka states that between 1901 and 1907 approximately one-seventh of all passports to the continental U.S. were issued to people classified as nonlaborers (Ichioka, The Issei, 52). According to a UCLA Japanese American Research Project survey of issei in the continental U.S., 36 percent of the male and female respondents immigrated with more than eight years of education in Japan. Cited in Yanagisako, Transforming the Past, 3, fn 3.

4. T. Scott Miyakawa, "Early New York Issei: Founders of Japanese-American Trade," in Conroy and Miyakawa, eds., East Across the Pacific, 156-86; Haru Reischauer, Samurai and Silk (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986).

5. Anthropologist Dorinne Kondo presents a different experience in which she was expected to act Japanese because of her Japanese ancestry. Crafting Selves: Power, Gender and Discourses in a Japanese Workplace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).

6. William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, 5 vols. (1918-1920), ed. and abridg. Eli Zaretsky (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984).

7. Jon Gjerde, From Peasants to Farmers: The Migration from Balestrand, Norway, to the Upper Middle West (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

8. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977); Josef J. Barton, Peasant and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians and Slovaks in an American City, 1880-1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977); Dino Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco: The Immigrant Experience (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982). See also Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: The Life-Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Kerby A. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); John W. Briggs, An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890-1930 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978); John Bodnar, Immigration and Industrialization: Ethnicity in an American Mill Town, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977); Kathleen Neils Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, 1836-1860: Accommodation and Community in a Frontier City (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979). Important earlier works are Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966); Marcus Lee Hansen, The Atlantic Migration, 1607-1860 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1940); and Brinley Thomas, Migration and Urban Development (London: Methuen & Co., 1972), which presents migration in relation to economic cycles in both the immigrant U.S. and emigrant Great Britain.

9. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, "Introduction," in Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, ed., Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 6-7.

10. Sucheng Chan, "European and Asian Immigration into the United States in Comparative Perspective, 1820s to 1920s," in Yans-McLaughlin, ed., Immigration Reconsidered, 38. See also, Chan, Asian Americans, chapter 1.

11. The Meiji period lasted from 1868 to 1912. The following period, the Taisho, lasted from 1912 to 1926. The Japanese method of enumerating each calendar year is by the year of the emperor's reign. Thus, 1912 was both Meiji 45 and Taisho 1.

12. John L. Caughey, Imaginary Social Worlds: A Cultural Approach (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984).

13. Ibid., 9-30.

14. Ibid., 136.

15. Yanagisako, Transforming the Past, 17.

16. Miriam Silverberg, "The Modern Girl as Militant," in Gall Lee Bernstein, ed., Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 239-66. Silverberg placed the "modern" Japanese woman of the 1920s in the ideological constructs of the period, a ''recasting" that challenged Western notions of "modern" as well as various contradictory and ambiguous Japanese attempts to display the "new woman" as apolitical, romantic, passive, promiscuous, communist, and consumerist, among other unflattering definitions. See also her "Constructing the Japanese Ethnography of Modernity," Journal of Asian Studies 51:1 (February 1992), 30-54.

17. See Masao Miyoshi, As We Saw Them: The First Japanese Embassy, to the United States (1860) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979) for impressions of an earlier era.

18. Sasaki Shigetsu, Beikoku o horoshite * (Wandering in America) (Tokyo: Nihon hyoronsha, 1921), the result of the author's fifteen years in the United States.

19. Kuriyagawa Hakuson, Inshoki * (Impressions) (Tokyo: Sekizenkan, 1918). Hakuson was a Meiji writer-critic.

20. Katayama Sen, Tobei annai (Introduction to America) (Tokyo: Rodoshimbunsha, 1901?).

21. Compulsory education was four years, extended to six in 1908. The nationwide compulsory attendance rate was consistently over 90 percent for boys from 1900 and for girls from 1904. See Japan's Modern Educational System: A History of the First Hundred Years (Tokyo: Research and Statistics Division, Ministers' Secretariat, Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, 1980), 106-8.

22. On the process of ideology building, see Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology, in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985) and Earl H. Kinmonth, The Self-Made Man in Meiji Japanese Thought: From Samurai to Salary Man (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).

23. Hakubunkan dominated the publishing world from the mid-1890s up to the early 1920s, a time called the Hakubunkan jidai (Hakubunkan period). See Ohashi * Sahei to Hakubunkan (Ohashi * Sahei and Hakubunkan) (Private collection, n.d.), 211-14. I am indebted to Professor Sugimoto Teruko (née Ohashi * ) for making this work available to me.

24. James A. Fujii, Complicit Fictions: The Subject in the Modern Japanese Prose Narrative (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

25. Ibid., 18 and 23. One of Fujii's major purposes was to critique the heretofore accepted interpretation of the West's influence on modern Japanese literature.

26. Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths, 10 and 29.

27. One of the few books in English about the small group of Meiji-Taisho women who received higher education in the United States is Barbara Rose, Tsuda Umeko and Women's Education in Japan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).