1. For demographic and social changes in western towns and cities, see: Ralph Mann, "The Decade After the Gold Rush: Social Structure in Grass Valley and Nevada City, California, 1850-1860," Pacific Historical Review XLI (November 1972), 484-504; and Richard H. Peterson, "The Frontier Thesis and Social Mobility on the Mining Frontier," Pacific Historical Review XLIV (Feb. 1975), 52-67. On Seattle during the World War I years, see Horace Cayton, Long Old Road: An Autobiography (Seattle, 1963). On Los Angeles, see J. Max Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California; reprinted by R&E Research Associates, San Francisco, 1972); and Lawrence B. de Graaf, "The City of Black Angels: The Emergence of the Los Angeles Ghetto, 1890-1930," Pacific Historical Review XXXIX (Aug. 1970), 323-52. On the Bay Area, see the San Francisco Chronicle , Nov. 11, 1943, p. 5 on the housing and health of World War II migrants, and Dec.

10, 1944, p. 12 on the future of the Black San Francisco population; see also Charles S. Johnson, The Negro War Worker in San Francisco (San Francisco, 1944); Davis McEntire and Julia R. Tarnopol, "Postwar Status of Negro Workers in San Francisco Area," Monthly Labor Review LXX (June 1950), 612-17; Ottole Krebs, "The Post-War Negro in San Francisco," American Communities II (1948-49), 549-86; Barbara Sawyer, "Negroes in West Oakland," Immigration and Race Problems (1949-53), pp. 844-64; and Edward Everett France, "Some Aspects of the Migration of the Negro to the San Francisco Bay Area Since 1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1962). On the Great Migration, see Emmett J. Scott, Negro Migration During the War (New York, 1920); Louise V. Kennedy, The Negro Peasant Turns Cityward: Effects of Recent Migrations to Northern Cities (New York, 1930); and Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1976).

2. Frank Soulé, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), and Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974) for the city's early history. On the uniqueness of San Francisco and Denver, see Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975). On San Francisco's population growth, see United States Census Office, Twelfth Census, 1900: Population (Washington, D.C., 1901) I: cxix, 430-33.

3. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856 , pp. 45-46; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , I: 430-33; John P. Young, San Francisco: A History of the Pacific Coast Metropolis , 2 vols. (San Francisco, [1912]), I: 322; II: 487, 670, 932, 976-77.

4. Young, San Francisco , I: 322; II: 939; "The City and Port of San Francisco, California," San Francisco Descriptive Pamphlets (San Francisco, 1896), pp. 2-3; United States Census Office, Manufacturers of the United States in 1860 (Washington, D.C. 1865), p. 36.

5. Young, San Francisco , I: 272-73; II: 605, 716, 760; San Francisco Call , Jan. 16, 1887, p. 1; "City and Port," Descriptive Pamphlets , pp. 2-3; United States Census Office, Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, D.C., 1918), p. 93.

6. On the role of shipping in the city's development and economy, see Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856 , pp. 31-33, 45-48, 67-69. [United States Census Bureau], Original Schedule of the Eighth Census, 1860, San Francisco, California (hereafter cited, with the appropriate year, as Manuscript Census), lists Black crew members aboard ships in Ward One; Elevator , Aug. 18, 1865, p. 3, June 30, 1865, p. 3.

7. E. Berkeley Tompkins, "Black Ahab: William T. Shorey, Whaling Master," California Historical Quarterly LI (Spring 1972), 75-84; Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, 1969 ed.), pp. 125-27; interviews, Eugene Lasartemay, July 23, 1976, Aurelious Alberga, July 27, 1976.

8. Manuscript Census, 1870. San Francisco Call , Aug. 5, 1893, p. 4; Oakland Western Outlook , July 22, 1916, p. 2; "Oakland Business Men," The Colored American Magazine IX (Nov. 1905), 648-50, and XII (Oct., 1907), 269-72.

9. Pacific Appeal , May 16, 1863, p. 4; Philip Durham and Everett L. Jones, The Negro Cowboy (New York, [1965]), pp. 170-71.

10. New York Weekly Anglo-African , Dec. 17, 1859, p. 3, Dec. 31, 1859, p. 3; Elevator , Jan. 12, 1866, p. 3; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , pp. 206-7.

11. Ann Charters, Nobody: The Story of "Bert" Williams (New York, 1970), pp. 20-25 discusses Williams and Walker's early years in San Francisco; Alan Lomax, Mister Jelly Roll: The Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton, New Orleans Creole and "Inventor of Jazz" (New York, [1950]), pp. 167-69.

12. Call , April 8, 1899, p. 7, June 23, 1899, p. 7, Jan. 13, 1903, p. 10; Chronicle , Dec. 3, 1902, p. 5, Aug. 4, 1916, p. 9, Jan. 15, 1920, p. 8; San Francisco Alta California , Oct. 11, 1889,

p. 8; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , 278-300, discusses the military careers of a number of Black pioneers.

13. San Francisco Pacific Appeal , Jan. 27, 1872, p. 2; interview with Alfred J. Butler, July 29, 1976; San Francisco Elevator , April 7, 1865, p. 4, July 10, 1868, p. 2; ''The Palace Hotel," The Overland Monthly XV (Sept. 1875), 298-99.

14. The Manuscript Census and published censuses give details on occupations. On the competition of whites and Blacks for hotel and restaurant positions, see Call , July 14, 1883, p. 1, July 18, 1883, p. 1, Nov. 3, 1896, p. 1; Alta California , Nov. 9, 1889, p. 1, Nov. 10, 1889, p. 10; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , p. 149.

15. Chronicle , Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7, glorifies the opportunities in San Francisco and the achievements of its Black citizens; Oakland Sunshine , April 28, 1906, p. 1; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , I: 18, II: 71-72; Negro Population , p. 140; Sixteenth Census, 1940: Population (Washington, D.C., 1943), part 1, pp. 599, 637, 657; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , p. 149. Informants invariably recalled narrow job opportunities for Black workers, and in the San Francisco Examiner , Aug. 2, 1968, p. 52, labor leader C. L. Dellums mentioned some of the difficulties of the 1920s.

16. Tenth Census, 1880: Population (Washington, D.C., 1883), I: 498, 538; conclusions on the origins and percentage of foreign-born Blacks were based on the Manuscript Census, 1860 and 1900, and the Twelfth Census, 1900; Population , II: 72. Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto (New York, [1963]), p. 3.

17. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1860.

18. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1900. The Manuscript Censuses of 1860 and 1900 give residents' place of birth; the 1900 gives that of their parents, as well.

19. Elevator , Jan. 26, 1866, p. 2 indicates that two-thirds of all Pacific slope Negroes were literate; Tenth Census, 1880: Population , I: 919, 924-25; Monroe Work, Negro Year Book, An Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1918-1919 (Tuskegee, Ala., 1919), pp. 80, 277; Thirteenth Census, 1910: Population (Washington, D.C., 1913), II: 181.

20. Pacific Appeal , June 7, 1862, p. 2 notes that a number of Blacks were educated "by the liberal school system of the Free States."

21. Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1871 , p. 11 provided figures for analysis of age distribution.

22. Computations based on Manuscript Census, 1860; Eventh Census, 1890: Population (Washington, D.C., 1897), II: part I, p. 890; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , II: 142-43; Thirteenth Census, 1910: Population , II: 180; and Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , III: part 1, pp. 245, 248. For age/sex ratios of Blacks in other cities between 1890 and 1910, see United States Census Office, Negro Population , p. 156; San Francisco's proportion of males was uncommonly high among urban Black centers. Denver's was comparable in 1890, but only in that year. The only major cities that approached Black San Francisco's ratio (166 males/100 females) in 1910 were Oakland (112/100), Detroit (108/100), and Chicago (106/100). Also, other cities' female populations grew from 1920 to 1930; see Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , II: 115.

23. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1860. Compare the changes in social structure in other California towns, as described in Mann, "The Decade After the Gold Rush." See notes 21 and 22. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , III: part 1, p. 248; W. E. B. Du Bois, The Black North in 1901: A Social Study (New York, rpt. 1969), p. 5.

24. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1860. Eleventh Census, 1890: Population , II: part 1, p. 890; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , II: 344; Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , II: 968; III: part 1, p. 248.

25. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , VI: 64.

26. Ibid., 59.

27. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population, IV: 21, 38, 39.

28. Ibid.

29. Charles S. Johnson, "The New Frontage on American Life," Alain Locke, ed., The New Negro (New York, 1969 ed.), pp. 288-89.

30. Pacific Appeal, July 5, 1862, p. 2, Oct. 3, 1863, p. 2. See the account of a lecture, "Battleships of the U.S. Navy," in Elevator, June 11, 1898, p. 2. The lecture described in detail the construction and armaments of vessels, using a five-foot model of the Oregon, electric torpedoes, and the destruction of a miniature vessel by electric mines.