1. José Maria de Mas y Casa, Ensayos-históricos sobre Manresa , 2d ed. (Manresa, 1882), 332.

2. William A. Christian, Jr., Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 93.

3. J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish Kingdoms , 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985-87), 2:149-50.

4. For an introduction with Spanish examples see The Military Orders: Fighting for the Faith and Caring for the Sick , ed. Malcolm Barber (Brookfield, Vt.: Variorum, 1994).

5. Jacob de Voragine, Legenda aurea 4.

6. Louis Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 6 vols. (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1955-59), 3-2:833-36 and pl. 54. Anonymous master of Estimariu (Catalan school), St. Lucy, Prado, Madrid. Cycle of St. Lucy, Catalan retable, An. Coll. Martin Le Roy, Paris. Maria Chaira Celletti, in Bibliotheca sanctorum , 12 vols. (Rome: Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia università lateranense, 1961-68), 7:252-57; C. Squarr, in Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , ed. Engelbert Kirschbaum, 8 vols. (Rome: Herder, 1968-76), 7:415-20.

7. Julio Caro Baroja, El estio festivo: Fiestas populares del verano , Otra historia de España, 10 (Madrid: Taurus, 1984), 9.

8. Christian, Local Religion , 94.

9. Dante, Paradiso 32.136-38; "Paradiso" 1: Italian Text and Translation , trans. Charles Singelton, Bollingen Series, 80 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975), 367; Inferno 2.97-100.

10. Acta 3.19; 3.30.

11. See Martin Ninck, Die Bedeutung des Wassers in Kult und Leben der Alten: Eine Symbolgeschichtliche Untersuchung , 2d ed. (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche, 1960); Philippe Reymond, L'Eau, sa vie, et sa signification dans l'ancient testament, Vetus testamentum Supplements , 6 (1958), 208-22.

12. Pierre Amandry, La mantique apollinienne à Delphes: Essai sur le fonctionnement

de l'oracle (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1950), 134-39; and for the spring Cassotis, Georges Roux, Delphes: Son oracle et ses dieux (Paris: Belles lettres, 1976), 136-45. It was characteristic of the Apolline sanctuaries that all were important hydraulic installations. René Ginouves, Balaneutike: Recherches sur le bain dans l'antiquité grecque Paris: E. de Boccard, 1962), 327-44.

13. Seneca, Epistolae 41.3; Ad Lucilium epistulae morales , trans. Richard M. Gummere, 3 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961), 1:275.

14. Joachim du Bellay, Odes 2.6, and Pierre de Ronsard, cited by Françoise Joukovsky, La gloire dans la poésie française et néolatine du XVIe siècle (Des rhétoriqueurs à Agrippa d'Aubigné) , Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, 102 (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 344.

15. See Gershom G. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Talmudic Tradition , 2d rev. ed. (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1965); Wilhelm Neuss, Das Buch Ezechiel in Theologie und Kunst bis zum Ende des XII. Jahrhunderts , Beiträge zur Geschichte des alten Mönchtums und des Benediktinerordens, 1-2 (Münster: Aschendorff, 1912); and for an Ezekiel figure, Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, Petrarch's Genius: Pentimento and Prophecy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), 92-112.

16. Raffaele Pettazoni, The All-Knowing God: Researches into Early Religion and Culture (London: Methuen, 1956), 78, cf. 145.

17. Acta 3.30.

18. Lorenz Dürr, Ezekiels Vision von der Erscheinung Gottes (Ez. c. 1 u. 10) im Lichte der vorderasiatischen Altertumskunde (Münster: Aschendorff, 1917), 54-60; W.F. Albright, "What Were the Cherubim?" Biblical Archeologist 1 (1938):1-2; Simon Landersdorfer, Der Baal tetramorphos und die Kerube des Ezechiel , Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums, 9 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1918).

19. Hugo Gressmann, Die Lade Jahves , Forschungsinstitut für Religionsgeschichte, Israelitisch-Jüdische Abteilung, 5 (Berlin: W. Kohlhammer, 1920), 49-51. The Demon Bes with Horus-eyes and the Holy of Holies of Solomon's Temple. Reproduced 51 and Abb. 10. Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 59, 110, cf. Ezek. 1:7. Bes pantheos, Bronze statuette, Louvre, Paris, figs. la, b. Bes reproduced in Balaji Mundkur, The Cult of the Serpent: An Interdisciplinary Survey of its Manifestations and Origins (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 66. See also the bibliography in Waldemar Deonna, Le symbolisme de l'oeil , École française d'Athènes, Travaux et mémoires des anciens membres étrangers de l'école et de divers savants, 15 (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1965), 130 n. 3.

20. Didron Ainé, "Iconographie des anges," Annales archéologiques 11 (1851):347-62; 12 (1852):168-76; 18 (1858):33-48; reproduced in 11: 355, fig. 2. See also Adolphe N. Didron, Christian Iconography: The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages , trans. E. J. Millington, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1965), 1:152, 355, fig. 3; 2:89, 91, fig. 152; 265. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, biblia sacra, MS lat. 6.i, 12th century, 97, fig. 157. Rabula Codex, Laurentian Library, Florence, in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 154-58, fig. 10; Vatican Kosmas manuscript, 9th or 7th century, 159-62, fig. 11, and further

162-79; Coptic chapel in Bawît, 190-93, figs. 27, 28. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 2-1:41. Reliquary of Saint Maurice, enamel, 12th century, Church of St. Pantaleon, Museum Schnutgen, Cologne. Reproduced in Aurelia Stappart, L'ange roman: Dans la pensée et dans l'art (Paris: Berg, 1975), pl. 10. For the enduring iconography see the cloister church of the Holy Name, 17th century, Ohridsee, Macedonia. Reproduced in Lothar Heiser, Die Engel im Glauben der Orthodoxie (Trier: Paulinus, 1976), Tafel XXXI.

21. See examples in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 162-276 passim; Jesús Domínguez Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 2 vols. (Florence: Pantheon, 1930), pls. 28, 44, 56, 106.

22. E.g. in the Catalan bible of Sant Pere de Roda. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Rod. B III, fol. 45. Reproduced in Neuss, Die Katalonische Bibelillustration um die Wende des ersten Jahrtausends und die altspanische Buchmalerei (Bonn: Kurt Schroeder, 1922), table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. This stroked version is frequent, e.g. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 137v. The First Trumpet. Reproduced in Pedro de Palol and Max Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain (London: Thames and Hudson, 1967), 70, fig. XVII. There is a Catalan cherub with two censers hanging from six wings with dotted semicircles in the upper arches in Tractát dels Set Querubins , Archive of the Crown of Aragon, MS n. 26, fol. 131. (Among the codices of Ripoll, a translation of Alain de Lille, De septem querubim ). Reproduced in Josep Gudiol, Els primitivs , part 3, Els llibres illuminats (Barcelona: Caruda, 1955), fig. 219. The dotted circle appears on the wings and at the center of the wheels of the tetramorph in the Great Scene of Judgment in Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 253r, pl. 144.

23. Bartolomé Bermejo, Christ at the Tomb with Angels, Heirs of Miguel Mateu, Barcelona. Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 9; Elias Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo el más recio de los primitivos españoles: Resumen de su vida, de su obra, y de su estudio," Archivo español de arte y arqueologia 2 (1926):fig. 25. Entry into Paradise (Te Deum) and Ascension, retable, 15th century, Instituto Amatller de arte hispánico, Barcelona. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pls. 3 and 4; Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," fig. 29 and detail fig. 31, fig. 36, with details figs. 37, 39. Resurrection, Museo municipale del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, ibid., fig. 33; but not included in Young's catalogue.

24. Lombard artist, King Ratchis altar, 8th century, S. Martino, Cividale. Reproduced in Gunnar Berefelt, A Study on the Winged Angel: The Origin of a Motif , trans. Patrick Hort (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1968), 52, fig. 35. Angels surrounding Christ in glory holding the Eucharistic host, Carolingian illumination, sacramentary of the cathedral of Limoges, 11th century, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 9438. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 45. Miniature, Bible for Bishop Heinrich von Blois, Winchester Cathedral, mid-12th century. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 233-34, fig. 44. For other Romanesque figures see ibid., 234-48. Mosaics, domes of Monreale, Sicily, ibid., 254-55, fig. 61. Mosaic, cathedral, Cefalù. Reproduced in Peter Lamborn Wilson, Angels (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 128. La Pala d'Oro, detail,

12th century, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 11. Miniature of Evangeliars, 13th century, Koniglich Bibliothek, Aschaffenburg. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 275-76, fig. 76.

22. E.g. in the Catalan bible of Sant Pere de Roda. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Rod. B III, fol. 45. Reproduced in Neuss, Die Katalonische Bibelillustration um die Wende des ersten Jahrtausends und die altspanische Buchmalerei (Bonn: Kurt Schroeder, 1922), table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. This stroked version is frequent, e.g. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 137v. The First Trumpet. Reproduced in Pedro de Palol and Max Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain (London: Thames and Hudson, 1967), 70, fig. XVII. There is a Catalan cherub with two censers hanging from six wings with dotted semicircles in the upper arches in Tractát dels Set Querubins , Archive of the Crown of Aragon, MS n. 26, fol. 131. (Among the codices of Ripoll, a translation of Alain de Lille, De septem querubim ). Reproduced in Josep Gudiol, Els primitivs , part 3, Els llibres illuminats (Barcelona: Caruda, 1955), fig. 219. The dotted circle appears on the wings and at the center of the wheels of the tetramorph in the Great Scene of Judgment in Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 253r, pl. 144.

23. Bartolomé Bermejo, Christ at the Tomb with Angels, Heirs of Miguel Mateu, Barcelona. Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 9; Elias Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo el más recio de los primitivos españoles: Resumen de su vida, de su obra, y de su estudio," Archivo español de arte y arqueologia 2 (1926):fig. 25. Entry into Paradise (Te Deum) and Ascension, retable, 15th century, Instituto Amatller de arte hispánico, Barcelona. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pls. 3 and 4; Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," fig. 29 and detail fig. 31, fig. 36, with details figs. 37, 39. Resurrection, Museo municipale del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, ibid., fig. 33; but not included in Young's catalogue.

24. Lombard artist, King Ratchis altar, 8th century, S. Martino, Cividale. Reproduced in Gunnar Berefelt, A Study on the Winged Angel: The Origin of a Motif , trans. Patrick Hort (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1968), 52, fig. 35. Angels surrounding Christ in glory holding the Eucharistic host, Carolingian illumination, sacramentary of the cathedral of Limoges, 11th century, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 9438. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 45. Miniature, Bible for Bishop Heinrich von Blois, Winchester Cathedral, mid-12th century. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 233-34, fig. 44. For other Romanesque figures see ibid., 234-48. Mosaics, domes of Monreale, Sicily, ibid., 254-55, fig. 61. Mosaic, cathedral, Cefalù. Reproduced in Peter Lamborn Wilson, Angels (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 128. La Pala d'Oro, detail,

12th century, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 11. Miniature of Evangeliars, 13th century, Koniglich Bibliothek, Aschaffenburg. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 275-76, fig. 76.

22. E.g. in the Catalan bible of Sant Pere de Roda. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Rod. B III, fol. 45. Reproduced in Neuss, Die Katalonische Bibelillustration um die Wende des ersten Jahrtausends und die altspanische Buchmalerei (Bonn: Kurt Schroeder, 1922), table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. This stroked version is frequent, e.g. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 137v. The First Trumpet. Reproduced in Pedro de Palol and Max Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain (London: Thames and Hudson, 1967), 70, fig. XVII. There is a Catalan cherub with two censers hanging from six wings with dotted semicircles in the upper arches in Tractát dels Set Querubins , Archive of the Crown of Aragon, MS n. 26, fol. 131. (Among the codices of Ripoll, a translation of Alain de Lille, De septem querubim ). Reproduced in Josep Gudiol, Els primitivs , part 3, Els llibres illuminats (Barcelona: Caruda, 1955), fig. 219. The dotted circle appears on the wings and at the center of the wheels of the tetramorph in the Great Scene of Judgment in Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 253r, pl. 144.

23. Bartolomé Bermejo, Christ at the Tomb with Angels, Heirs of Miguel Mateu, Barcelona. Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 9; Elias Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo el más recio de los primitivos españoles: Resumen de su vida, de su obra, y de su estudio," Archivo español de arte y arqueologia 2 (1926):fig. 25. Entry into Paradise (Te Deum) and Ascension, retable, 15th century, Instituto Amatller de arte hispánico, Barcelona. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pls. 3 and 4; Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," fig. 29 and detail fig. 31, fig. 36, with details figs. 37, 39. Resurrection, Museo municipale del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, ibid., fig. 33; but not included in Young's catalogue.

24. Lombard artist, King Ratchis altar, 8th century, S. Martino, Cividale. Reproduced in Gunnar Berefelt, A Study on the Winged Angel: The Origin of a Motif , trans. Patrick Hort (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1968), 52, fig. 35. Angels surrounding Christ in glory holding the Eucharistic host, Carolingian illumination, sacramentary of the cathedral of Limoges, 11th century, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 9438. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 45. Miniature, Bible for Bishop Heinrich von Blois, Winchester Cathedral, mid-12th century. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 233-34, fig. 44. For other Romanesque figures see ibid., 234-48. Mosaics, domes of Monreale, Sicily, ibid., 254-55, fig. 61. Mosaic, cathedral, Cefalù. Reproduced in Peter Lamborn Wilson, Angels (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 128. La Pala d'Oro, detail,

12th century, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 11. Miniature of Evangeliars, 13th century, Koniglich Bibliothek, Aschaffenburg. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 275-76, fig. 76.

25. So-called Alcuin Bible from Tours, written probably at Marmoutier between 834 and 843, Bamberg, Staatliche Bibliothek, MS 1, fol. 339v. Reproduced in Gertrude Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , trans. Janet Seligman, 2 vols. (London: Lund Humphries, 1971), 2:fig. 397.

26. Trier Apocalypse, executed in northern France first quarter of 9th century, Trier, Stadtbibliothek, Cod. 31, fol. 18v. Reproduced in John Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination (London: Chatto & Windus, 1977), 26.

27. Moralia in Iob, 945 A.D. , Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, Cod. 80, fol. 2v. Reproduced in Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination , pl. 8A. Cf. Moralia in Iob, 925 A.D. , Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional, Vit. 14-2. Reproduced in Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 1:pl. 8; Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages , ed. Evelyn Antal and John Harthan (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 227, fig. 135. For the motif of the punctuated circle see Deonna, Symbolisme de l'oeil , 26-28.

28. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 203-17, figs. 35, 36. See also Rod. B, fol. 45, reproduced in idem, Katalonische Bibelillustration , table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. Cf. 2:fol. 129v. Reproduced in Walter Cohn, Romanesque Bible Illumination (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982), 73; Gérard de Champeaux and Sébastien Sterckx, Introduction au monde des symboles , 2d ed. (n.p.: Zodiaque, 1972), 25. Cf. II, fol. 109. Reproduced in Neuss, Katalonische Bibelillustration , table 25, fig. 83; Ainé, ''Iconographie des anges," 11: 360, fig. 7; Gudiol, Llibres illuminats , fig. 21. Cod. Vat. lat. 5729. Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 217-27; but incorrectly identified as the Farfa bible. Fol. 5v. Reproduced in Cohn, Romanesque Bible Illumination , 71. Cf. Fresco, S. Giovanni in Oleo, Rome. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , 295, fig. 18.

29. Codex vigilianus seu albeldensis, A.D. 976, Escorial Library of the Royal Monastery, fol. 16v. Reproduced in Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 1:pl. 25; Champeaux and Sterckx, Introduction au monde des symboles , 109.

30. Beato de San Millán de la Cogolla, c. 1000, Madrid, Real academia de la historia, Cod. aemil. 33, fol. 92r. Reproduced in Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination , pl. 24; José Esteban Uranga Galdiano and Francisco Iñiguez Almech, Arte medieval navarro , 5 vols. (Pamplona: Aranzadi, 1971), 1:pl. 14; cf. fol. 209 in Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 1:pl. 19.

31. Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, vit. 14-2, fol. 116v. Reproduced in Beato de Liébana , 91.

32. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fols. 121v-122r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Xavier Barral i Altet, "Repercusión de la illustración de los Beatos en la iconografía del arte monumental románico," in Actas del simposio para el estudio de los códices del "Commentario al Apocalypsis" de Beato de Liébana , 3 vols. (Madrid: Joyas, 1980), 3:12, fig. 2; François Avril, "Quelques considerations sur l'execution materielle des enluminures de l'Apocalypse de Saint-Sever," ibid., 161, fig. 1. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale,

MS lat. 8878, fol. 108v-109r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 235, fig. 146.

31. Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, vit. 14-2, fol. 116v. Reproduced in Beato de Liébana , 91.

32. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fols. 121v-122r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Xavier Barral i Altet, "Repercusión de la illustración de los Beatos en la iconografía del arte monumental románico," in Actas del simposio para el estudio de los códices del "Commentario al Apocalypsis" de Beato de Liébana , 3 vols. (Madrid: Joyas, 1980), 3:12, fig. 2; François Avril, "Quelques considerations sur l'execution materielle des enluminures de l'Apocalypse de Saint-Sever," ibid., 161, fig. 1. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale,

MS lat. 8878, fol. 108v-109r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 235, fig. 146.

33. From the Liber testamentorum regium of Bishop Don Pelayo, 1126-29. Reproduced in Palol and Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain , 96, fig. XXII.

34. See Josep Pijoan with Josep Gudiol i Ricart, Les pintures murals romàniques de Catalunya , Monumenta cataloniae, 4 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1948), 96-97. Reproduced as General view of apse, Seraphs with eyes on backs of hands, Sant Climent de Taüll, fig. 17; Lamb of the Apocalypse, fig 24; Decoration of the apse, St. Luke, Seraph with an eye above the wrist, St. John, Archangel, Santa Maria de Taüll, fig. 35; Esterrí de Cardós, Apse, Angels censing the eternal one, fig. 47; Estaon, Església de Santa Eulalia, Decoration of the apse, eyes on wings, hands, and feet, fig. 51. Església de Santa Maria, Decoration of main apse, Esterrí d'Àneu, fig. 57; detail, fig. 57. All are in the Museo de Arte de Cataluña, Barcelona. See also the detail of fresco of Santa María de Esterrí d'Àneu in Palol and Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain , fig. XXIV, with bibliography; Sant Climent de Taüll, in L'Art de la Catalogne de la second moitié du neuvième siècle à la fin du quinzième siècle (Paris: Cahiers d'art, 1937), 122, pl. LXXX, design of a row of eyes marching down the center of uplifted wings, all over the downward wings, and on the back of the hands of the angel; Apse of Santa Eulàlia de Estaon, Seraphs with eyes on wings flanking Christ enthroned in a mandorla, Eduard Carbonell i Esteller and Jordi Gumí Cardona, L'Art romànic a Cataluyna segle XII , 2 vols. (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1974-75), pl. 213, cf. detail of Santa María d'Esterrí d'Àneu, pl. 203; Seraph of Santa María d'Àneu in Stappart, Ange roman , 266-67, figs. c, e, f.

35. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever , fol. 108v-109r.

36. Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews , 7 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1913-67), 2:308.

37. Adolf Jacoby, "Zur Erklärung der Kerube," Archiv für Religionswissen-schaft 22 (1923-24); Uno Holmberg, "Der Todesengel," Studia orientalia 1 (1925):72-77; Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 17, 111; Gustav Davidson, A Dictionary of Angels Including the Fallen Angels (New York: Free Press, 1967), 26, 64-65.

38. Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, vit. 14-2, fol. 195. Reproduced in Beato de Liébana , 117. Consider also the beast before the temple with eyes on its body in Beato de Madrid, Madrid vit. 14-1, fol. 108v. Reproduced in P.K. Klein, "La tradición pictórica de los Beatos," in Actas del simposio para el estudio de los Códices del "Comentario al Apocalypsis" de Beato de Liébana , 3:64, fig. 16. See also the spots in Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, fol. 171v; the paisley eyes on the cavalry of beasts, fol. 171v; the spots on the adored beast, fol. 191v; the ocular scales on the dragon, fols. 186v, 187r, and on the frogs, fol. 220v. Scales like eyes may be a reminiscence of the legend of Leviathan with 365 eyes. Cf. stylized eyes on the head of the feathered and spangled serpent in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 13.

39. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 2-1:61; Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:112-14. Dante, Inferno 34.37-54. See also Antonio Orbe, "La trinidad

maléfica (A propósito de "Excerpta ex Theodoto" 80, 3)," Gregorianum 49 (1968):726-61.

40. Mestre de Glorieta, Retable of Santa Anna, Sant Minquel, and Sant Sebastian, Table of St. Michael, second third of 15th century, private collection, Barcelona. Reproduced in Núria de Dalmases and Antoni José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 8 vols. (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1983-85), 3:236.

41. Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 19. For the multiplicity of organs see Claude Kappler, Monstres, démons, et merveilles à la fin du moyen âge (Paris: Payot, 1980), esp. 123-29; for the multicephalous see the grylle in Jurgis Baltrusaitis, Le moyen âge fantastique: Antiquités et exotismes dans l'art gothique (Paris: Armand Colin, 1955), 31-36; in general, John B. Friedman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Gilbert Lascault, Le monstre dans l'art occidental: Un problème esthétique (Paris: Klincksieck, 1973); Heinz Mode, Fabulous Beasts and Demons (London: Phaidon, 1971); Centre de recherches sur la Renaissance, Université de Paris-Sorbonne, Monstres et prodiges au temps de la Renaissance , ed. M. T. Jones-Davies (Paris: Jean Touzot, 1980).

42. Paul Carus, The History of the Devil and the Idea of Evil: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1900 reprint; La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1974), 444; Thomas Wright, A History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art (London, 1865), 56.

43. Baltrusaitis, Moyen âge fantastique , 151-63, with examples of Chinese bat's wings with circles by Li Long-mein ( A.D. 1081).

44. Orcagna, Detail of the Triumph of Death, Campo Santo, Pisa. In the second architectural division, the devil on the lower left beneath the inscription held by two angels. Reproduced in Raymond Régamy, Anges (Paris: P. Tisné, 1946), no. 20; Métamorphoses du diable (Paris: Hachette, 1968), 68.

45. The Last Judgment, fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa. Reproduced in Carus, History of the Devil , 485.

46. Jaume Ferrer II, Retable of St. Michael, c. 1444-47, Lleida, Paeria. Reproduced in Dalmases and José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 3:235. See also the ocular motif on bat's wings, 229. Bernat Martorell, Retable of Sant Jordi, central table, c. 1440, Art Institute, Chicago.

47. Bartolomé Bermejo, The Breaking of Hell, Museo Municipal del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," 36-37, fig. 26.

48. Miguel Jiménez, Victory of St. Michael and Other Angels over the Devils, section of a retable, Gallery of Fine Arts, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Reproduced in Chandler Rathfon Post, A History of Spanish Painting , 14 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930-66), 8-1:fig. 47. See also the Master of St. George, Retable of St. Michael, Cathedral of Tarragona, first half of 15th century. Reproduced in Art de la Catalagne , 287, pl. CXCI, and 289, pl. CXCII.

49. "Statura quoque erat rotis, et altitudo, et horribilis aspectus; et totum corpus oculis plenum in circuitu ipsarum quatuor. . . . Et omne corpus earum, et colla, et manus, et pennae, et circuli, plena erant oculis in circuitu quatuor rotarum."

50. Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 30, 38, 78, 54.

51. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos 79.2; Expositions on the Book of Psalms , trans. H. M. Wilkins, 6 vols. (Oxford, 1853), 4:102; cf.98.3.

52. Dionysius the Areopagite [pseud.], Hierarchia caelestia 6, 7, 15; The Celestial Hierarchies , trans. Editors of the Shrine of Wisdom (London: Shrine of Wisdom, 1935), 25, 26, 50 with alteration.

53. The order was accepted by Thomas Aquinas and Dante. For a comparative listing see Davidson, Dictionary of Angels , appendix: "The Orders of the Celestial Hierarchy," 336-38. See also C. A. Patrides, "Renaissance Thought on the Celestial Hierarchy: The Decline of a Tradition," Journal of the History of Ideas 20 (1959): 155-66; idem, ''Renaissance Views on the 'Unconfused Orders Angellick,'" ibid. 23 (1962):265-67.

52. Dionysius the Areopagite [pseud.], Hierarchia caelestia 6, 7, 15; The Celestial Hierarchies , trans. Editors of the Shrine of Wisdom (London: Shrine of Wisdom, 1935), 25, 26, 50 with alteration.

53. The order was accepted by Thomas Aquinas and Dante. For a comparative listing see Davidson, Dictionary of Angels , appendix: "The Orders of the Celestial Hierarchy," 336-38. See also C. A. Patrides, "Renaissance Thought on the Celestial Hierarchy: The Decline of a Tradition," Journal of the History of Ideas 20 (1959): 155-66; idem, ''Renaissance Views on the 'Unconfused Orders Angellick,'" ibid. 23 (1962):265-67.

54. Hildegard of Bingen, Scivias , between pp. 6-7. Reproduced also in Louis Baillet, "Les miniatures du Scivias de sainte Hildegarde conservé à la Bibliothèque de Wiesbaden," Fondation Eugène Piot, Monuments et mémories (Pairs: Ernest Leroux, 1911), 19:58, fig. 2; Hiltgart L. Keller, Mittelrheinische Buch-malereizur in Handschriften aus dem Kreise der Hiltgart von Bingen (Stuttgart: Ernst Surkamp, 1933), pl. 3; Scivias by Hildegard of Bingen , trans. Bruce Hozeski (Santa Fe, N.M.: Bear, 1986), 6.

55. Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 5-10, 16-17, 19, 22, 24-25, 105-11, 145, 433-49. For multiple eyes see also Deonna, Symbolisme de l'oeil , 121-34.

56. See Caro Baroja, Los Vascos , 2 vols. (San Sebastien: Larrun, 1982), 2:376-77 without reference; but the source is Guide du pèlerin de Saint-Jacques de Compostela 7. For primitive Basque notions of the sky and sun and of rays as lightning see Caro Baroja, Sobre la religion antigua y el calendario del pueblo vasco , 3d ed., Estudios vascos, 1 (San Sebastian: Txertoa, 1973), 13-45.

57. Dante, Purgatorio 29.94-102.

58. See Jean Daniélou, "Les démons de l'air dans la Vie d'Antoine ," Studia anselmiana 38 (1956):136-47.

59. See Jeffrey Burton Russell, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981), 165-88; idem, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984), 180-81, 174 n. 36.

60. Vita Antonii 22, 23, 31, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 24. The traditional ascription of this work to Athanasius has been challenged by T. D. Barnes, "Angel of Light or Mystic Initiate? The Problem of the Life of Antony," Journal of Theological Studies 37 (1986):353-63.

61. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-1:101-15. Many plates are reproduced in Enrico Castelli, Le démoniaque dans l'art: Sa signification philosophique , trans. Enrichetta Valenziani (Paris: J. Vrin, 1958); Roland Villeneuve with Josselyne Chamarat, La beauté du diable (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1983), 102-18.

62. Reproduced in Wilhelm Fraenger, Matthias Grünewald (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1963), pl. 16.

63. Josep M. Gasol, Manresa: Panorama d'una ciutat (Manresa: Montañà, 1971), 30, fig. 26; 41. Lluis Borrassà, Internment of Christ, fragment of retable of St. Anthony Abbot, 1410, Seo, Manresa.

64. See Benjamin Rowland, Jr., Jaume Huguet: A Study in Late Gothic

Painting in Catalonia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 133-40 and fig. 36. The lost retable, housed in the Escolapios, was burned during the semana tragica of 1909 with no fragments remaining, only poor photographs and summary descriptions. See A. Duran I Sanpere, "El desaparecido retablo de San Antonio Abad," Museum 1 (1911):1-2. The central demon with upraised club has a bat's wings with oval motifs decorating the edges. For the contemporary cult of Anthony abbot in Spain see Caro Baroja, Las formas complejas de la vida religiosa (Religión, sociedad y carácter en la España de los siglos XVI y XVII) (Madrid: Akal, 1978), 96-99.

65. Vita Antonii 6, 23, 31-35, 39, 25-27.

66. For the cycle of the devil outwitted see August Wünsche, Die Sagenkreis vom geprellten Teufel (Leipzig: Akademischer, 1905).

67. Russell, Lucifer , 62-63, 67, 161, 225.

68. Vita Antonii 7 and passim, 5, 7, 13, 21-25, 35-41, 62-64, 75, and for discernment as most important, p. 175.

69. Russell, Lucifer , 129-33, 209-12; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 1-1:61-62; and for a recent survey, Luther Link, The Devil, a Mask without a Face (London: Reaktion, 1995), 35-78. See the winged serpent, Paris, Bibliothéque nationale, MS coll. duc d'Anjou, c. 1200. Reproduced in Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:125, fig. 176.

70. Kirschbaum, "L'Angelo rosso e l'angelo turchino," Rivista di archeologia cristiana 17 (1940):209-27. Mosaic, c. 520, S. Appollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Reproduced ibid., 211, fig. 1.

69. Russell, Lucifer , 129-33, 209-12; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 1-1:61-62; and for a recent survey, Luther Link, The Devil, a Mask without a Face (London: Reaktion, 1995), 35-78. See the winged serpent, Paris, Bibliothéque nationale, MS coll. duc d'Anjou, c. 1200. Reproduced in Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:125, fig. 176.

70. Kirschbaum, "L'Angelo rosso e l'angelo turchino," Rivista di archeologia cristiana 17 (1940):209-27. Mosaic, c. 520, S. Appollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Reproduced ibid., 211, fig. 1.

71. Paris, Bibliothéque nationale, MS graec 510, fol. 165. Reproduced in Henri Auguste Omont, Les miniatures des plus anciens manuscrits grecs de la Bibliothèque nationale du 6e au 14e siècle (Paris: H. Champion, 1929), pl. 35. Henri-Irenée Marrou, "The Fallen Angel," in Satan , ed. Bruno de Jesus-Marie (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1952), 78. See also Ivory plaque of the Metz school, c. 850; Ciborium of King Arnulf, c. 890; Vysehrad Coronation Gospels of King Vratislav. Prague, National and University Library, MS XIV, fol. 24b. Reproduced in Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 1:144-45, figs. 391, 392, 393.

72. Russell, Lucifer , 67-91, 211; Carmelina Naselli, "Diavoli bianchi e diavoli neri nei leggendari medievali," Volkstum und Kultur der Romanen 15 (1942):233-54. For these guises of the devil in Spanish lore see John Esten Keller, Motif-Index of Mediaeval Spanish Exempla (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949), G303.3.1.2-G303.3.3.18.4.

73. Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:127, 259-60; Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 1:144-45.

74. J. P. Wickersham Crawford, "The Devil as a Dramatic Figure in the Spanish Religious Drama before Lope de Vega," Romanic Review 1 (1910): 307-8, 311, 383.

75. Tempe E. Allison, "The Vice in Early Spanish Drama," Speculum 12 (1937):104-9.

76. Russell, Lucifer , 67, 211. See also Francis J. Carmody, "Le diable des bestiaires," Cahiers de l'Association internationale des études françaises , nos. 3-5 (July, 1953):79-85.

77. Augustine, De civitate Dei 3.31; Concerning the City of God against the

Pagans , trans. Henry Bettenson (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1972), 133.

78. Ulysse Aldrovandi, Serpentum, et draconum historiae . See also Charles Gould, Mythical Monsters (London, 1886), 202-4, and for Aldrovandi's etchings, 233, figs. 51 and 52.

79. Alexandre Cirici with Ramon Manent, Ceràmica catalana (Barcelona: Destino, 1977), 76, cf. 80, reproduced 78-79, and in Marçal Olivar, La ceràmica trescentista a Aragó, Catalunya i València , Monumenta cataloniae, 8 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1952), figs. 168, 169; Dalmases and José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 3:280. This has been named plausibly the basilisk of Manresa but implausibly its harpy, since there was a Christian iconographical tradition of the diabolical serpent with a human face, such as this has. See Henry Ansgar Kelly, "The Metamorphoses of the Eden Serpent during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance," Viator 2 (1971):301-28; John K. Bonnell, "The Serpent with a Human Head in Art and in Mystery Play," American Journal of Archaeology 21 (1917):255-91.

80. Caro Baroja, Vascos , 2:384-85; idem, "Notas de folklore vasco," Revista de dialectología y tradiciones populares 2 (1946):372-75.

81. For hybrids see Sylvia Lefevre, "Polymorphisme et métamorphose: Les mythes de la naissance dans les bestiaires," in Métamorphose et bestiaire fantastique au moyen âge , ed. Laurence Harf-Lancner (Paris: École normale supérieure de jeunes filles, 1985), 215-46.

82. Mundkur, Cult of the Serpent , 99 and 100, fig. 47.

83. Florence McCulloch, Mediaeval Latin and French Bestiaries , Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 33 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960), 153-54, citing Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 12.7.48.

84. Albert the Great, Liber animalium 23.92.

85. Brunetto Latini, Li livres du tresor 1.168. Anonymous, Volucraires 251, 301-38.

86. Aldrovandi, Orinthologiae 1, pp. 8, 21-22. Konrad Gesner, Historiae animalium 3, 2-3:657.

87. See Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 151-52.

88. Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.49-52.

89. Peter Paul Rubens, Juno places the eyes of decapitated Argos on the peacock, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne. Reproduced in Ernst Thomas Reimbold, Der Pfau: Mythologie und Symbolik (Munich: Callwey, 1983), 129, Abb. 60; Gert von der Osten, Wallraf Richartz Museum Köln , 2 vols. (Cologne: M. DuMont Scauberg, 1966), 2:123.

90. Peter Paul Rubens, St. Ignatius Loyola as Worker of Miracles, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, and Dulwich College Picture Gallery, London. Reproduced in Julius S. Held, The Oil Sketches of Peter Paul Rubens: A Critical Catalogue , 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press for the National Gallery of Art, 1980), pls. 398 and 400.

91. E. P. Evans, Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture (London, 1896), 313. Miniature, reproduced at 314 from Charles Cahier, Mélanges d'archéologie , 4 vols. (Paris, 1847-57), 2:xx.AB.

92. Helmut Lother, Der Pfau in der altchristlichen Kunst: eine Studie über das Verhältnis von Ornament und Symbol (Leipzig: Dieterich, 1929).

93. Augustine, De civitate Dei 21.4, cited by McCullough, Medieval Latin and French Bestiaries , 154.

94. Fresco, 3d century, Priscilla catacomb, Rome; Early catacomb, Vatican. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 94, Abb. 14, 15.

95. Mosaic of the Vineyard, S. Costanza, Rome. Reproduced in Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , fig. 70. Mosaic in the Church of Beligna, 5th century, Museo paleocristiano aquileia. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , Abb. 16.

96. Cathedra of Bishop Maximinianus of Ravenna, 546-556, Museo arcivescovile, Ravenna. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 97, Abb. 18. See also 98-103, 105, Abb. 19-29.

97. Ibid., 57-61. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Last Supper, refectory of the cloister of Ognissanti, Florence, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Reproduced as fig. 25.

96. Cathedra of Bishop Maximinianus of Ravenna, 546-556, Museo arcivescovile, Ravenna. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 97, Abb. 18. See also 98-103, 105, Abb. 19-29.

97. Ibid., 57-61. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Last Supper, refectory of the cloister of Ognissanti, Florence, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Reproduced as fig. 25.

98. Follower of Hans Memling, Virgin and Child with angels in a summer house, c. 1490, Capilla real, Granada. Jan van Eyck, Madonna with chancellor Rollin, c. 1425, Louvre, Paris. Master of the "Virgo inter Virgines," Mystical marriage of St. Catherine, c. 1490, Museu nacional de arte antigua, Lisbon. Simon Bening, SS. Cosmas and Damien, miniature, c. 1510, Hennessy Book of Hours. Illustration, Loyset Liédet, Histoire de Charles Martel , Brussels, Bibliothèque royale, MS 6, fol. 9. Illustration, Roman de la rose , Flemish, c. 1485, British Library, Harley MS 4425, fol. 14v. Reproduced in John Hooper Harvey, Mediaeval Gardens (London: B. T. Batsford, 1961), 90; 113, pls. 43 and VIIa; 100, pl. 48; 91, pl. 44; 89, pl. 42; 137, pl. 74; 108, pl. 60. Charlemagne's garden, 28.

99. Moralia in Iob, 945 A.D. Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, Cod. 80, fol. 3v. Reproduced in Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination , pl. 7. See also the twelfth-century Spanish silk weaving with a pair of peacocks in Byzantine style. Musée de Cluny, Paris. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 105, Abb. 30.

100. Ignacio Malaxecheverría, El bestiario esculpido en Navarra (Pamplona: Institución principe de Viana, 1982), 181.

101. Reimbold, Pfau , 44, citing Ephraeum Syrus's hymn 42.11, but without bibliography.

102. Offenbarung der Schwester Mechthild von Magdeburg, oder das fliessende Licht der Gottheit 1.46; The Revelations of Mechthild of Magdeburg (1210-1297), or The Flowing Light of the Godhead , trans. Lucy Menzies (London: Longmans, Green, 1953), 26.

103. Gian Domenico Gordini and Renato Aprile, in Bibliotheca sanctorum , 2:cols. 750-67; Leander Petzoldt, in Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , ed. Kirschbaum, 5:cols. 304-11; Hans Aurenhammer, ed., Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie (Vienna: Brüder Hollinek, 1959), 280-91; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-1:171-73. For the original of Barbara with a peacock see 8th century, S. Maria antiqua, Rome. Reproduced in Bibliotheca sanctorum , 2:col. 750. For other examples see Woodcarving, title page of Dionysius Carthusianus, Summa fidei orthodoxi , Cologne, 1535; Altar wing from the workshop of Stefan

Lochners or by a master of the Cologne school, second half of 15th century, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 113, Abb. 39, 40. For her cult see also Caro Baroja, Vascos , 2:357; Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:23, 141. There was a Barbara altar by the Maestro de Mart de Torres, first half of 15th century, Museum del arte de Cataluña, Barcelona. Reproduced in Lexikon der christlichten Ikonographie , 5:col. 311.

104. Erasmus, "Confessio militis," in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:156; The Colloquies of Erasmus , trans. Craig R. Thompson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 14.

105. Acta 8.82; cf. 6.55.

106. See Stephen L. Wailes, "The Crane, the Peacock, and the Reading of Walther von der Vogelweide 19, 19," Modern Language Notes 88 (1973): 952.

107. Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie , s. v. "flabellum."

108. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival 11.565.7-12.; Joseph Campbell, Creative Mythology (New York: Viking, 1968), 501-3.

109. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 122-23, Abb. 51, 52.

110. George Cary, The Medieval Alexander , ed. D. J. A. Ross (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956), 32-33. The classical subjects most in vogue in medieval Spain were the life of Alexander the Great and the history of Troy. Ian Michael, The Treatment of Classical Material in the "Libro de Alexandre " (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1970), 12-13. For the importance of the idea of fame in Libro de Alexandre see Maria Rosa Lida de Malkiel, La idea de la fama en la edad media castellana (Mexico: Fondo de cultura económica, 1952), 167-97. For the peacock see Néstor Alberto Lugones, "Los bestiarios en la literatura medieval española," Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1976, 187-95.

111. Jacques de Longuyon, Voeux du paon 12, 17, 21, 25. There are also more recent editions, although unpublished: Camillus Casey, " Les voeux du paon by Jacques de Longuyon: An Edition of the P Redaction," Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1956; Robert Alexander Magill, "Part I of the Voeux du paon by Jacques de Longuyon: An Edition of Manuscripts S, S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6," Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1964. Although the edition used does not indicate the association of Alexander with the peacock, the conqueror is said to have been so amazed in India by the beauty of these birds that he threatened the severest penalties for slaying one. See Aelian, De natura animalium 5.21.

112. See B. J. Whiting, "The Vows of the Heron," Speculum 20 (1945):261-78. For other birds and the military see Heinz Peters, " Miles christianus oder Falke und Taube: Eine ikonographische Skizze," in Festschrift für Otto von Simson zu 65. Geburtstag , ed. Lucius Grisebach and Konrad Renger (Berlin: Propyläen, 1977), 53-61.

113. Reimbold, Pfau , 57-61. Benvenuto di Giovanni, Annunciation, painted tableboard, c. 1470, Museo d'arte sacra della Val d'Arbia, Buonconvento. Carlo Crivelli, Annunciation, Maria as Juno Caelestis with Peacock, altar painting, 1486, National Gallery, London. Reproduced 116, Abb. 43; 119, Abb. 46; also in Jill Dunkerton, Susan Foister, Dillian Gordon, and Nicholas Penny, Giotto to Dürer: Early Renaissance Painting in the National Gallery (New Haven,

Conn.: Yale University Press with National Gallery Publications, London, 1991), 345, pl. 51.

114. Chaucer, Parlement of Foules 356 .

115. Alain de Lille, De sex alis cherubim , cited in Adolf Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Medieval Art from Early Christian Times to the Thirteenth Century , Studies of the Warburg Institute, 10 (Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1968), 62. See also French MS, second half 12th century, Stadtbibliothek, Frankfurt, fig. 63.

116. Archangel Gabriel, mosaic, 7th century, Church of St. Panagra Angeloktistos, Kiti, Cyprus. Reproduced in Wilson, Angels , 170.

117. Simone Martini, Annunciation, Uffizzi, Florence. Reproduced in Raymond Régamy, Anges , with analytic notes by Reneé Zeller (Paris: Pierre Tisné, 1946), no. 21, noting that Lippo Memmi probably painted the costume and wings. Although this and following examples are frequently reproduced, reference is given to Régamy's book for ease of comparison.

118. Filippo Lippi, Annunciation, 1435, cloister church of Suore Murate, Florence, Alte Pinkothek, Bayerischen Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 117, Abb. 44, 45. See also the angel of the Annunciation with peacock's wings, painting by an unknown master, 1380-90, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne. Reproduced 114, Abb. 41.

119. Annunciation, Chapel of the Gesù, Cortona. Two Angel Musicians, detail of the Tabernacle of the Lenaioli, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Round of the Angels and the Elect, detail of the Last Judgment, Uffizzi, Florence. Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Angel of the sepulchre, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Supper of St. Dominic Served by the Angels, predella of the Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Reproduced in Régamy, Anges , nos. 28-29, 24, 25, 26-27, 30, 23, 33. Cf. the stylized eyes in Annunciation, fresco, Museo de san Marco, Florence, no. 24.

120. Angels Chanting the Gloria, fresco, chapel, Palazzo Riccardi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., nos. 65-66.

121. Tobias and the Three Archangels, Academie des beaux-arts, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 88.

119. Annunciation, Chapel of the Gesù, Cortona. Two Angel Musicians, detail of the Tabernacle of the Lenaioli, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Round of the Angels and the Elect, detail of the Last Judgment, Uffizzi, Florence. Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Angel of the sepulchre, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Supper of St. Dominic Served by the Angels, predella of the Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Reproduced in Régamy, Anges , nos. 28-29, 24, 25, 26-27, 30, 23, 33. Cf. the stylized eyes in Annunciation, fresco, Museo de san Marco, Florence, no. 24.

120. Angels Chanting the Gloria, fresco, chapel, Palazzo Riccardi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., nos. 65-66.

121. Tobias and the Three Archangels, Academie des beaux-arts, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 88.

119. Annunciation, Chapel of the Gesù, Cortona. Two Angel Musicians, detail of the Tabernacle of the Lenaioli, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Round of the Angels and the Elect, detail of the Last Judgment, Uffizzi, Florence. Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Angel of the sepulchre, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Supper of St. Dominic Served by the Angels, predella of the Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Reproduced in Régamy, Anges , nos. 28-29, 24, 25, 26-27, 30, 23, 33. Cf. the stylized eyes in Annunciation, fresco, Museo de san Marco, Florence, no. 24.

120. Angels Chanting the Gloria, fresco, chapel, Palazzo Riccardi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., nos. 65-66.

121. Tobias and the Three Archangels, Academie des beaux-arts, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 88.

122. Jan van Eyck, Last Judgment, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Reproduced in Hans Belting and Dagmar Eichberger, Jan van Eyck als Erzahler: Frühe Tafelbilder im Umkreis der New Yorker Doppeltafel (Worms: Werner, 1983), frontispiece.

123. Roger van der Weyden, Detail of the Last Judgment, central part of polyptych, Hospice de Beaune. Reproduced Régamy, Anges , no. 54.

124. Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Shepherds, Portinari altar, Uffizi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 56.

125. Angel Gabriel, detail of the retable of Gardona, 15th century, Museum of Ancient Art, Barcelona. Reproduced ibid., no. 130. See also Maestro de Rubió, Annunciation, Retable of Rubió. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 69, fig. 44. Angels with peacock wings hold the cloth of honor in Ramón Destorrents, St. Anne, Retable of Almudaina, 1353, Museo das Janelas Verdes, Lisbon. Reproduced ibid., 58, fig. 40.

123. Roger van der Weyden, Detail of the Last Judgment, central part of polyptych, Hospice de Beaune. Reproduced Régamy, Anges , no. 54.

124. Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Shepherds, Portinari altar, Uffizi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 56.

125. Angel Gabriel, detail of the retable of Gardona, 15th century, Museum of Ancient Art, Barcelona. Reproduced ibid., no. 130. See also Maestro de Rubió, Annunciation, Retable of Rubió. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 69, fig. 44. Angels with peacock wings hold the cloth of honor in Ramón Destorrents, St. Anne, Retable of Almudaina, 1353, Museo das Janelas Verdes, Lisbon. Reproduced ibid., 58, fig. 40.

123. Roger van der Weyden, Detail of the Last Judgment, central part of polyptych, Hospice de Beaune. Reproduced Régamy, Anges , no. 54.

124. Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Shepherds, Portinari altar, Uffizi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 56.

125. Angel Gabriel, detail of the retable of Gardona, 15th century, Museum of Ancient Art, Barcelona. Reproduced ibid., no. 130. See also Maestro de Rubió, Annunciation, Retable of Rubió. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 69, fig. 44. Angels with peacock wings hold the cloth of honor in Ramón Destorrents, St. Anne, Retable of Almudaina, 1353, Museo das Janelas Verdes, Lisbon. Reproduced ibid., 58, fig. 40.

126. Annunciation, Bernat Martorell, Llibre d'hores , 1440-50, Institut mu-

nicipal d'història, Barcelona. Reproduced in Dalmases and José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 3:233.

127. Perhaps Jaume Huguet, St. Michael trampling Satan, Frau Kocherthaler, Berlin. Reproduced in Rowland, Jaume Huguet , fig. 45.

128. Reproduced in Wilson, Angels , pl. 44.

129. Hieronymus Bosch, John of Patmos, c. 1480-90, Preussische Kulturbesitz, Gëmaldegalerie, Staatliche Museum, Berlin. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 115, Abb. 42; but the detail is clearer in such reproductions as Günther Heinz, Hieronymus Bosch (Vienna: Anton Schroll, 1968), Abb. 82 and detail 83; Charles de Tolnay, Hieronymus Bosch (Baden-Baden: Holle, 1965), unnumbered.

130. Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 328-29. The theory that the bestiaries were mnemonic is proposed in Beryl Rowland, "The Art of Memory and the Bestiary," in Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages: The Bestiary and Its Legacy , ed. Willene B. Clark and Meradith T. McMunn (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 12-25.

131. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 3:177-78.

132. Aristotle, Historia animalium 1, cf. 8, 9, 9.1; Ovid, Metamorphoses 13.802; Pliny, Naturalis historia 10.22.43-44; Physiologus 12. For the peacock as a symbol of pride and vanity see Reimbold, Pfau , 51-54; Beryl Rowland, Birds with Human Souls: A Guide to Bird Symbolism (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 127-30; Malaxecheverría, Bestiario esculpido en Navarra , 183; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 88; Evans, Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture , 311-12; Morton W. Bloomfield, The Seven Deadly Sins: An Introduction to the History of a Religious Concept, with Special Reference to Medieval English Literature (n.p.: Michigan State University Press, 1952), appendix I: "The Association of Animals and Sins," 245; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 1:130; George Ferguson, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), 9.

133. Stefano Guazzo, Civil conversatione 3.

134. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Delights, 1500?, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 121, Abb. 49, 50.

135. Pieter Breughel the Elder, copper engraving of Superbia. Reproduced in ibid., 52, figs. 22, 23; Abb. 41. See also Superbia in the mirror in Bosch, Superbia from the painted tableboard with the seven deadly sins, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Benjamin Goldberg, The Mirror and Man (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1985), 123.

134. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Delights, 1500?, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 121, Abb. 49, 50.

135. Pieter Breughel the Elder, copper engraving of Superbia. Reproduced in ibid., 52, figs. 22, 23; Abb. 41. See also Superbia in the mirror in Bosch, Superbia from the painted tableboard with the seven deadly sins, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Benjamin Goldberg, The Mirror and Man (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1985), 123.

136. Herbert Grabes, The Mutable Glass: Mirror-Imagery in Titles and Texts of the Middle Ages and English Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 153-58.

137. Isabel Mateo Gómez, Temas profanas en la escultura gótica española: Las sillerías de coro (Madrid: Consejo superior de investigaciones científicas, Instituto Diego Velásquez, 1979), 381-82. For the use of the peacock in the later emblem books see Emblemata , pp. 808-11.

138. Aldrovandi, Orinthologiae 1-3. See also such historical volumes as Jerome Cardano, De subtilitate , and Konrad Gesner, Historia animalium 3; and for a modern survey, Gould, Mythical Monsters , with classical references, 182-

92, classical and medieval dragons, 192-211, and references contemporary with Loyola, 202-4. Aldrovandi's etchings are reproduced, 233, figs. 51 and 52.

139. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 138. For additional examples see Ruth Mellinkoff, The Devil at Isenheim: Reflections of Popular Belief in Grünewald's Altarpiece , Califronia Studies in the History of Art, Discovery, 1 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 26. The identification of the capital vices with animals became systematic in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries according to Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 150-51. See also Mireille Vincent-Cassy, "Les animaux et les péchés capitaux: De la symbolique à l'emblematique," in Le monde animal et ses représentations au moyen-âge (XIe-XVe siècles ), Actes du XVème congrès de la Société des historiens médiévistes de l'enseignement supérieur public, Toulouse, 25-26 mai 1984, Travaux de l'Université de Toulouse-le Mirail, 31 (Toulouse: Université de Toulouse-le Mirail, 1985), 121-32.

140. Reproduced in Arthur M. Hind, Early Italian Engraving: A Critical Catalogue with Complete Reproduction of All the Prints Described , 7 vols. (New York: M. Knoedler, 1938), 4:pl. 397. Cited by Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 245.

141. Manuscript, Metten (Bavaria), 1414, with illustrations of strong Bohemian influence. Munich, Clm. Cod. lat. 8201, fol. 95r. Fritz Saxl, "A Spiritual Encyclopedia of the Later Middle Ages," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 5 (1941):126-27. Reproduced fig. 31a, cf. pl. 31c; Angus Wilson et al., The Seven Deadly Sins (London: Sunday Times, 1962), title page.

142. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 14325-35.

143. Cited in Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 371. See also Alan J. Fletcher, "The Hideous Feet of Landland's Peacock," Notes and Queries 235 (1991):18-20.

144. Illustrations with woodcuts in Josse Bade's edition of La nef des folles--Stultiferae naves , cited by Carl Nordenfolk, "The Five Senses in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 48 (1985):12.T.

145. Cited in Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 245.

146. Samuel Chew, The Pilgrimage of Life (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962), 251-52, citing its reproduction in René Fülöp-Miller, The Power and Secret of the Jesuits , trans. F. S. Flint and D. F. Tait (London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1930), pl. 8. The description of the engraving is mine, since the peacock has been overlooked. For peacocks and vainglory see also Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 82-83, 93, 95-98.

147. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 44-45, 59, 60-61, 69-72, 79, 85-87. He speculates that the Jesuit preference for the saligia formula is traceable to a Spanish predilection, perhaps from great interest in canon law, for the Ostiensic (after Henry of Ostia) rather than Gregorian sequence in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 399 n. 142. See Arthur Watson, " Saligia," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 10 (1947):148-50. See also Wenzel, "The Seven Deadly Sins: Some Problems of Research," Speculum 43 (1968):122.

148. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 312, 314-16.

149. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 104, 124. The encyclopedist Vincent of Beauvais in his Speculum naturale listed inanis gloria first, 126.

150. See Pero López de Ayala, Rimado de palacio , stanzas 63-124; also E. B. Strong, "The Rimado de palacio : Lopez de Ayala's Rimed Confession," Hispanic Review 37 (1969):439-51.

151. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 139-40; Eliezer Oyola, Los pecados capitales en la literatura medieval española (Barcelona: Puvill, 1979).

152. Gonzalo de Berceo, Libro de Alixandre , 2334-44, 2329-30, 2345-2411, with vainglory, whose exemplar is Zozimas, at 2395-2404.

153. Margherita Morreale, "Los catalogos de virtudes y vicios en las biblias romanceadas de la edad media," Nueva revista de filología hispánica 12 (1958):149-59.

154. Juan Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 217-387, with 276-85 for envy of the peacock and 304-10 for vainglory paired with wrath. See also Félix Lecoy, Recherches sur le "Libro de buen amor" de Juan Ruiz, archiprêtre de Hita (Paris: Droz, 1938), 172-86; Robert Ricard, "Les péchés capitaux dans le Libro de buen amor," Les lettres romanes 20 (1966):5-37; Ian Michael, "The Function of the Popular Tale in the Libro de buen amor ," in "Libro de buen amor" Studies , ed. G. B. Gybbon-Monypenny (London: Tamesis, 1970), 177-218.

155. Michael, "Function of the Popular Tale," 198. For the type see Stith Thompson, Motif Index of Folk-Literature , rev. ed., 6 vols. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1955-58), J951.2.

156. Juan de Mena, Coplas de los siete pecados mortales 19-20, 35, 51-58. See also for vainglory Coplas fechas por Fernan Perez de Guzman de vicios e virtudes 1299-1322, in Cancionero de Juan Fernandez de Ixar .

157. Evagrius Ponticus, Logos praktikos prol. 3, 13, 30-32.

158. Augustine, In Epistolam Joannis ad Parthos tractatus 8.9; Homilies on the Gospel according to St. John, and His First Epistles , trans. H. Browne, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1848), 2:1198. De sermone Domini in monte 2.12.41; Commentary on the Lord's Sermon on the Mount with Seventeen Related Sermons , trans. Denis J. Kavanagh (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1951), 149.

159. Françoise Joukovsky-Micha, "La notion de vaine gloire de Simund de Freine à Martin le Franc," Romania 89 (1968):1, 3, 4, 14-21.

160. The Florentine Fior di Virtu of 1491 1, 2, 30; trans. Nicholas Fersin (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1953), 81, 82; and see vii, xvi-xxviii. Woodcut, Fiore di virtù , 15th century, Venice. Reproduced also in Alessandro Tagliolini, Storia del giardino italiano: Gli artisti, l'invenzione, le forme dall'antichità al XIX secolo (Florence: Usher, 1988), 35, fig. 13. See also M. Casella, "La versione catalana del Fiore di virtù," Revista delle biblioteche e degli archivi 31 (1920):1-10.

161. William J. Bouwsma, John Calvin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 61, citing Calvin, Commentariorum 2 Cor. 10:12.

162. Pierre de Labriolle, "Le 'démon de midi,'" Bulletin Du Cange 9 (1934):46-54.

163. Rudolph Arbesmann, "The Daemonium meridianum and Greek and Latin Patristic Exegesis," Traditio 14 (1958):20-23, 25-26, citing Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos 90, and Jerome, Tractatus sive homiliae in psalmos .

164. Richard of St. Victor, Benjamin minor 81.

165. Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica canticorum 33.6.13; "In Circumcisione Domini, Sermo" 3.1. For the cultural dissemination of this exegesis see Kathleen M. Ashley, "The Specter of Bernard's Noonday Demon in Medieval Drama," American Benedictine Review 30 (1979):205-21.

166. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 81, with references to Hilton, Rolle, and the author of the Cloud .

167. Walter Hilton, The Scale of Perfection 26; Qui habitat 6.

168. "A Treatise of Discrescyon of Spirites" and "A Pistle of Discrecioun of Stirrings," pp. 85-86, 70.

169. Richard Rolle, Incendium amoris 14; The Fire of Love , trans. G. C. Heseltine (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1935), 60.

170. Jean Gerson, De distinctione verarum revelationum a falsis , p. 53.

171. Marcus of Orvieto, "De pavo" 6, Liber de moralitatibus . Transcribed in Friedman, "Peacocks and Preachers: Analytic Technique in Marcus of Orvieto's Liber de moralitatibus , Vatican lat. MS 5935," in Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages , ed. Clark and McMunn, 192.

172. Mellinkoff, Devil at Isenheim , 27, 19-31, although the argument about omniscience, and not merely pride, is mine. Reproduced Albrecht Dürer, Fall of Man, engraving, 1504, and Fall of Man, woodcut, 1511, 39, figs. 14-17. Hans Baldung Grien, Fall of Man, woodcut, c. 1515, 40, figs. 18-19. Follower of Michael Coxie, Fall of Man, painting, 16th century, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne, 40-41, figs. 20-21. Many reproductions of Grünewald's peacock angel, passim. The identification of this angel as the devil was also made independently through the research for this chapter, "The Flying Serpent," several years before the publication of Mellinkoff's monograph.

173. Acta 3.30.

174. See Nordenfalk, "Five Senses," 1-22; and for the emblem of the sense of sight as a human head before a mirror, Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 192-94.

175. James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough , part 2, Taboo and the Perils of the Soul (London: Macmillan, 1913), 92-96; Ninck, Bedeutung des Wassers , 50-51, 70-71.

176. Plutarch, De defectu oraculorum 432d, 433e; Plutarch's Moralia , trans. Frank Cole Babbitt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959), 5:469, 471.

177. Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.339-510.

178. For Narcissus in Guillaume de Lorris, Roman de la rose see Larry C. Hillman, "Another Look into the Mirror Perilous: The Role of the Crystals in the Roman de la rose ," Romania 101 (1980):225-38; Jean Rychner, "Le mythe de la fontaine de Narcisse dans le Roman de la rose de Guillaume de Lorris," in Y. Bonnefoy et al., Le lieu et la formule: Hommage à Marc Eigeldinger (Neuchâtel: Baconnière, 1978), 33-46; Patricia J. Eberle, "The Lovers' Glass: Nature's Discourse on Optics and the Optical Design of the Romance of the Rose ," University of Toronto Quarterly 46 (1976-77):241-62; Thomas D. Hill, "Narcissus, Pygmalion, and the Castration of Saturn: Two Mythographical Themes in the Roman de la rose ," Studies in Philology 71 (1974):404-26; Daniel Poirion, "Narcisse et Pygmalion dans le Roman de la rose ,'' in Essays in Honor of

Louis Francis Solano , ed. Raymond J. Cormier and Urban T. Holmes, Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 92 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970), 153-65; Erich Köhler, "Narcisse, la fontaine d'amour, et Guillaume de Lorris," in L'Humanisme médiéval dans les littératures romanes du XIIe au XIVe siècles , ed. A. Fourrier (Paris: C. Klincksieck, 1964), 147-66; Jean Frappier, "Variations sur le thème du miroir, de Bernard de Ventadour à Maurice Scève," Cahiers de l'Association internationale des études françaises 11 (1959):134-58; and see also Sarah Kay, "Love in a Mirror: An Aspect of the Imagery of Bernart de Ventadorn," Medium aevum 52 (1983):272-85.

179. Louise Vinge, The Narcissus Theme in Western European Literature up to the Early Nineteenth Century , trans. Robert Dewsnap et al. (Lund: Gleerups, 1967), 1-178; Frederick Goldin, The Mirror of Narcissus in the Courtly Love Lyric (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967); Kenneth J. Knoespel, Narcissus and the Invention of Personal History (New York: Garland, 1985); and for Narcissus in Spain, José Marío, Fábulas mitológicas en España (Madrid: Espasa-Colpe, 1952), 884-85, and in general, Rudolph Schevill, Ovid and the Renasence in Spain , University of California Publications in Modern Philology, 4 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1913).

180. Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.1.22; Memorabilia , trans. E. C. Marchant in Xenophon , 7 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), 4:95.

181. Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 1486.

182. Erasmus, De civilitate 2, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1037.

183. Ephemeris , p. 122.

184. For autofascination see S. Seligmann, Der Böse Blick und Verwandtes: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Aberglaubens aller Zeitenund Völker , 2 vols. (Berlin: Hermann Boresdorf, 1910), 1:178-88.

185. For the double in the eye of the other see Eugène Monseur, "L'Ame pupilline," Revue de l'histoire des religions 51 (1905):1-23; and for the reflections of windows on eyeballs, Jan Bialostocki, "The Eye and the Window: Realism and Symbolism of Light-Reflections in the Art of Albrecht Dürer and His Predecessors," in Festschrift für Gert von der Osten (Cologne: DuMont Schauberg, 1970), 159-76. For Dürer's self-portraits in the mirror see John Pope Hennessy, The Portrait in the Renaissance , Bollingen Series, 35-12 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), 126-29.

186. Leonardo da Vinci, Paris, Institut de France, MS A, fol. 37b, in Literary Works , 1:134.

187. For the motif see Robert Baldwin, "'Gates Pure and Shining and Serene': Mutual Gazing as an Amatory Motif in Western Literature and Art," Renaissance and Reformation 10 (1986):23-48; for the eyes and love see also M. B. Ogle, "The Classical Origin and Tradition of Literary Conceits," American Journal of Philology 34 (1913):135-40.

188. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 119.

189. J. H. Waszink, " Pompa diaboli ," Vigiliae christianae 1 (1947):13-41; Hugo Rahner, " Pompa diaboli : Ein Beitrag zur Bedeutungsgeschichte des Wortes pompe-pompa in der urchistlichen Taufliturgie," Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie 55 (1931):239-73, citing at 272 Théodolphe d'Orleans, De ordine baptismi 1.

190. Christian, Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaissance Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 221.

191. See Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 167-68, 189, 224.

192. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 75-76.

193. Ferguson, Signs and Symbols , 22.

194. Les lapidaires français du moyen âge des XIIe, XIIIe, et XIVe siècles , 52, 95-96, 134; Le lapidaire du quatorzieme siècle , 3-4; Anglo-Norman Lapidaries , 49, 175.

195. Petrarch, Africa 3.101-5.

196. Roman de la rose 19931-20026.

197. See J. S. Ackerman, "Early Renaissance Color Theory and Practice," in Studies in Italian Art and Architecture , ed. Henry A. Milton, Studies in Italian Art History, 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1980), 21. Piero della Francesca, Stigmatization of St. Francis, Predella from altarpiece, 1460s?, Gallery, Perugia, reproduced fig. 3. The seraph wears a loincloth of peacock's feathers.

198. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 2-2:476.

199. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 2:119, figs. 367, 397, 398, 406, 401, 400.

200. Augustine, Sermo 234; see also In epistolam Iohannis ad Parthos 119.2. For his professorial chair in heaven see ibid. 3.13; Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica canticorum 19.2.4. For the school of Christ see Adalbert de Vogüé, "L'École du Christ: Des disciples de Jésus au monastère du Maître et de Benoît," Collectanea cisterciensia 46 (1984):3-12. For Christ as the interior teacher in the school of the breast see Augustine, De magistro 12.40; cf. 14.46; Confessiones 9.9.21; cf. 11.3.5.

199. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 2:119, figs. 367, 397, 398, 406, 401, 400.

200. Augustine, Sermo 234; see also In epistolam Iohannis ad Parthos 119.2. For his professorial chair in heaven see ibid. 3.13; Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica canticorum 19.2.4. For the school of Christ see Adalbert de Vogüé, "L'École du Christ: Des disciples de Jésus au monastère du Maître et de Benoît," Collectanea cisterciensia 46 (1984):3-12. For Christ as the interior teacher in the school of the breast see Augustine, De magistro 12.40; cf. 14.46; Confessiones 9.9.21; cf. 11.3.5.

201. Augustine, Ennarationes in psalmos (1)33.9; cf. 33.7; (2)33.2; 149.8; 147.23.

202. Jacopone da Todi, Laude 27.42-44; The Lauds , trans. Serge and Elizabeth Hughes (New York: Paulist, 1982), 141.

203. Angela of Foligno, Liber de vere fidelium experientia 130, 174.

204. Patrick S. Diehl, The Medieval European Religious Lyric: An "Ars poetica" (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 216.

205. Mary Caroline Spalding, The Middle English Charters of Christ , Bryn Mawr College Monographs, 15 (Bryn Mawr. Pa.: Bryn Mawr College Press, 1914), xliiff.

206. John Whiterig, "Meditation Addressed to Christ Crucified" 53, cited by Richard Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls: Fourteenth-Century Saints and Their Religious Milieu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 103. See also his reference to Richard Rolle's meditation on the body of the crucified as a book with red ink, 104.

207. Henry Suso, Büchlein der ewigen Weisheit 3, 14, 7; Little Book of Eternal Wisdom and Little Book of Truth , trans. James M. Clark (London: Faber & Faber, 1953), 56, 102, 76.

208. Domenico Cavalca, Mirall de la creu 8, 13, 16, 18, 25, 36; prol., pp. 11-12.

209. Catherine of Siena, Lettere 11, 25, 101, 177, 235, 242; 318 trans. in Johannes Jorgensen, Saint Catherine of Siena , trans. Ingebord Lund (London:

Longmans, Green, 1939), 165; Lettere 316 trans. in I, Catherine, Selected Writings of St Catherine of Siena , trans. Kenelm Foster and MaryJohn Ronayne (London: Collins, 1980), 203; Lettere 69. See also Il Dialogo della divina Provvidenza, ovvero Libro della divina dottrina 77, 145, 154. For continuation of the topic in the sixteenth century see Vittoria Colonna's poetic prayer that Christ's nails become her quills, his blood her ink, and his body her writing paper so that she might inscribe his suffering in herself interiorly, Rime spirituali disperse 1.

210. Catherine of Siena, Lettere 226; trans. Foster and Ronayne, 171.

211. Legenda 1.10.6-10, in Acta sanctorum , 3:862-967; The Life of Catherine of Siena by Raymond of Capua , trans. Conleth Kearns (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1980), 105. For the hagiographical topic of the illiterate woman who can miraculously read scripture by sight see Vita Theclae 45.8, cited by Peter R. L. Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity , Lectures on the History of Religions, n.s. 13 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 277.

212. The locus classicus is Gregory the Great, Registrum epistularum 9.209; 11.10.

213. Erasmus, Antibarbari , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-1:130; The Antibarbari , trans. Margaret Mann Phillips, in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), 23:113.

214. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 410.

215. See Eugene F. Rice, Jr., Saint Jerome in the Renaissance (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 49-83, 19, 46, 147. See since Rosemarie Muliahy, "Federico Zuccaro and Philip II: The Reliquary Altars for the Basilica of San Lorenzo de El Escorial," Burlington Magazine 129 (1987):502-9.

216. Rice, Saint Jerome in the Renaissance , 55-58, and now Stephen F. Ostrow, "The Sistine Chapel at S. Maria Maggiore: Sixtus V and the Art of the Counter Reformation," Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1987, 11, 13; and on the Presepio idem, Art and Spirituality in Counter-Reformation Rome: The Sistine and Pauline Chapels in S. Maria Maggiore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 23-62.

217. Epistolae 19.

218. Rice, Saint Jerome in the Renaissance , 57.

219. Howard Hibbard, " Ut picturae sermones : The First Painted Decorations of the Gesù," in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution , ed. Rudolf Wittkower and Irma B. Jaffe (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976), 35.

220. Rice, St. Jerome in the Renaissance , 14, 17.

221. For Jerome penitent in the wilderness before a crucifix see ibid., 75-83. For numerous examples of Jerome with the cross and the book see Herbert Friedmann, A Bestiary for Saint Jerome: Animal Symbolism in European Religious Art (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), figs. 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44, 45, 50, 59, 60, 64, 69, 70, 76, 77, 89, 102, 108, 131, 145, 158, 160, 167, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 185, 187, and for the cross and the book in his study, figs. 2, 17, 20, 83, 88, 91, 103, 104, 119, and 21 (pietà). See also School of Botticelli, St. Jerome in Penitence, Hermitage, Leningrad; and

a seventeenth-century example in which a manuscript is open directly behind the crucifix, Guercino, St. Jerome Hearing the Trumpet of the Last Judgment, S. Girolamo, Rimini. Reproduced in Bernhard Ridderbos, Saint and Symbol: Images of Saint Jerome in Early Italian Art (Groningen: Bouma, 1984), 80, fig. 37; 81, fig. 39; 72, fig. 33. Piero della Francesca, St. Jerome and a Donor, Galleria dell'accademia, Venice. Reproduced in Kenneth Clark, Piero della Francesca: Complete Edition , 2d rev. ed. (London: Phaidon, 1969), pl. 14.

220. Rice, St. Jerome in the Renaissance , 14, 17.

221. For Jerome penitent in the wilderness before a crucifix see ibid., 75-83. For numerous examples of Jerome with the cross and the book see Herbert Friedmann, A Bestiary for Saint Jerome: Animal Symbolism in European Religious Art (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), figs. 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44, 45, 50, 59, 60, 64, 69, 70, 76, 77, 89, 102, 108, 131, 145, 158, 160, 167, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 185, 187, and for the cross and the book in his study, figs. 2, 17, 20, 83, 88, 91, 103, 104, 119, and 21 (pietà). See also School of Botticelli, St. Jerome in Penitence, Hermitage, Leningrad; and

a seventeenth-century example in which a manuscript is open directly behind the crucifix, Guercino, St. Jerome Hearing the Trumpet of the Last Judgment, S. Girolamo, Rimini. Reproduced in Bernhard Ridderbos, Saint and Symbol: Images of Saint Jerome in Early Italian Art (Groningen: Bouma, 1984), 80, fig. 37; 81, fig. 39; 72, fig. 33. Piero della Francesca, St. Jerome and a Donor, Galleria dell'accademia, Venice. Reproduced in Kenneth Clark, Piero della Francesca: Complete Edition , 2d rev. ed. (London: Phaidon, 1969), pl. 14.

222. Maestro of the Seo of Urgel, Saint Jerome praying before crucifix, Museo de Barcelona. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 293, fig. 250.

223. See Paolo Veronese, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Reproduced in Friedmann, Bestiary for Saint Jerome , 81, fig. 60.

224. Antonello da Messina, Saint Jerome in His Study, National Gallery, London; Gentile Bellini, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Toledo Museum of Art Toledo, Ohio; and Bartolomeo Montagna, Saint Jerome in Meditation, Accademia Carrara, Bergamo; Basaiti school, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Musée Hongrois des Beaux-Arts, Budapest. Reproduced in ibid., 158, fig. 119; 52, fig. 26, and detail of peacock fig. 27; 61, fig. 37; 206, fig. 145. Friedmann also mentions a peacock in a triptych by Jerome Patinir, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 284. For the painting by Messina see also Dunkerton et al., Giotto to Dürer , 319, pl. 41.

223. See Paolo Veronese, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Reproduced in Friedmann, Bestiary for Saint Jerome , 81, fig. 60.

224. Antonello da Messina, Saint Jerome in His Study, National Gallery, London; Gentile Bellini, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Toledo Museum of Art Toledo, Ohio; and Bartolomeo Montagna, Saint Jerome in Meditation, Accademia Carrara, Bergamo; Basaiti school, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Musée Hongrois des Beaux-Arts, Budapest. Reproduced in ibid., 158, fig. 119; 52, fig. 26, and detail of peacock fig. 27; 61, fig. 37; 206, fig. 145. Friedmann also mentions a peacock in a triptych by Jerome Patinir, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 284. For the painting by Messina see also Dunkerton et al., Giotto to Dürer , 319, pl. 41.

225. Acta 1.5.

226. Moshe Barasch, Light and Color in the Italian Renaissance Theory of Art (New York: New York University Press, 1978), 53, 55, 64.

227. Plato, Respublica 7.532b; The Dialogues of Plato , trans. Benjamin Jowett, 2 vols. (New York: Random House, 1937), 1:791, 792.

228. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 6.2.32.

229. Plato, Respublica 505a; Plotinus, Enneads 6.36; 4.3.9.

230. Hans-Georg Gadamer, The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy , trans. P. Christopher Smith (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 20, 23, 35, 66, 121, 136.

231. See Plato, Phaedo 99d-100a, cited by Grabes, Mutable Glass , 72.

232. Heath Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest: Women in Castillian Town Society, 1100-1300 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 150-51.

233. See Jeanne Battesti-Pelegrin, "Eaux douces, eaux amères dans la lyrique hispanique médiévale traditionelle," in L'Eau au moyen âge (Marseille: Jeanne Laffitte, 1985), 48-51, citing Jose María Alín, El cancionero español de tipo tradicional (Madrid: Taurus, 1968), 208, 226, 461.

234. Maria Rosa Lida de Malkiel, Juan de Mena: Poeta del prerenacimiento español (Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1950), 307-8; see also Alicia C. de Ferraresi, " Locus amoenus y vergel visionario en Razón de amor," Hispanic Review 42 (1974):173-83.

235. Joseph E. Gillet, "El mediodía y el demonio meridiano en España," Nueva rivista di filologia hispanica 7 (1953):307-15.

236. See Historia de la linda Melosina and Jean d'Arras, Mélusine . Cf. Walter Map, De nugis curialium 4.11.

237. Micer Francisco Imperial, El dezir a las syete virtudes 17.51-52, 301-52. For their interpretation as heresies see ARcher Woodford, "Edición crítica del Dezir a las syete virtudes," Nueva revista de filología hispánica 8 (1954):285-89nn.; idem, "Francisco Imperial's Dantesque Dezir a las syete virtudes : A Study of Certain Aspects of the Poem," Italica 27 (1950):88-100. See also Dorothy Clotelle Clark, "The Passage on Sins in the Decir a las siete virtudes," Studies in Philology 59 (1962):18-30. The identification of the flying serpents as basilisks, because they have crowns, is mine.

238. See Lida de Malkiel, Idea de la fama , 261-65.

239. Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, Amadís de Gaula 2.56; cf. 2.48; Amadis of Gaul: Books I and II , trans. Edwin B. Place and Herbert C. Behm (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), 544.

240. Ibid.

239. Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, Amadís de Gaula 2.56; cf. 2.48; Amadis of Gaul: Books I and II , trans. Edwin B. Place and Herbert C. Behm (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), 544.

240. Ibid.

241. Acta 3.30.

242. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 39, 48-60, 137-39. Artists also employed mirrors in their workshops as aids. See Heinrich Schwarz, "The Mirror of the Artist and the Mirror of the Devout: Observations on Some Paintings, Drawings, and Prints of the Fifteenth Century," in Studies in the History of Art Dedicated to William E. Suida on his Eightieth Birthday (London: Phaidon for the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, 1959), 90-100; Bialostocki, "Man and Mirror in Painting: Reality and Transience," in Studies in Late Medieval and Renaissance Painting in Honor of Millard Meiss , ed. Irving Lavin and John Plummer, 2 vols. (New York: New York University Press, 1977), 1:61-72. For the iconography of mirrors see also François Garnier, Le langage de l'image au moyen âge: Signification et symbolique , 2 vols. (Paris: Léopard d'or, 1982-89), 2:223-28.

243. Shakespeare, King Richard II , act 4, scene 1, cited by Goldberg, Mirror and Man , 145; Grabes, Mutable Glass , 111, 214-16. See also Peter Ure, "The Looking-Glass of Richard II," Philological Quarterly 34 (1955):219-24.

244. Aristotle, Historia animalium 488b, cited by Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 88; Historia animalium , trans. A. L. Peck, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965-70), 1:19.

245. Augustine, De Genesi ad litteram 12.15.52.

246. Richart de Fournival, Li bestiaires d'amours , p. 48. See also for amorous vigilance the tableau attributed to Jan Van Eyck, The Sorcery of Love, tableau, Museum of Leipzig. Reproduced in Villeneuve with Chamarat, Beauté du diable , 145.

247. Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices , 55.

248. Ibid., 56.

247. Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices , 55.

248. Ibid., 56.

249. Michel Colombe, Prudence at the mirror, Tombeau de Nantes. Hans Baldung Grien, Munich. Reproduced in Baltrusaitis, Le miroir: Essai sur une légende scientifique (Paris: Elmayan and le Seuil for Centre national des lettres, 1978), 8, fig. 2; 13, fig. 4. For prudence with the mirror see also Grabes, Mutable Glass , 158-60.

250. See Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 97; Grabes, Mutable Glass , 153-58.

251. Bestaris , B 24. Cf. Il bestiario toscano 23. For background see Michel Salvat, "Notes sur les bestiaire catalans," in Epopée animale, fable, fabliau , Actes du IVe colloque de la Société internationale renardienne, Evreux, 7-11

septembre 1981, ed. Gabriel Bianciotto and Salvat, Publications de l'Université de Rouen, 83 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1984), 499-508.

252. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 76, citing Dionysius the Areopagite [pseud.], Hierarchia caelestia 3.2; De divinis nominibus 4.2.2 (correction); and other medieval writings; Dante, Purgatorio 15.16-24; Paradiso 29.142-44.

253. For the eye of the peacock as a mirror having the ambivalence of viewer and viewed see Gaston Bachelard, L'Eau et les rêves: Essai sur l'imagination de la matière (Paris: José Corti, 1942), 42-44. This is in the context of the pool of Narcissus, 31-45. Although the sources Bachelard cites are later than Loyola, their affinity is significant. For mirrors as deceptive see Grabes, Mutable Glass , 131-32.

254. Reimbold, Pfau , 26-27, 45-47, 54-57. See also Campbell, Creative Mythology , 501-3. For the mythology see also Julius Schwabe, "Lebenswasser der Pfau, zwei Symbole der Wiedergeburt," Symbolon: Jabrbuch für Symbol-forschung 1 (1959):138-72. For the evil eye see Tobin Siebers, The Mirror of Medusa (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); Matthew W. Dickie, "Heliodorus and Plutarch on the Evil Eye," Classical Philology 86 (1991):17-29.

255. See Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 141.

256. Augustine, De genesi contra Manichaeos 1.23.40.

257. Augustine, In epistolam Iohannis ad Parthos 2.13; Enarrationes in psalmos 9.8.

258. Augustine, Confessiones 1.10.16; 6.8.13.

259. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos 135.20; Expositions on the Book of Psalms , trans. Wilkins, 6:143.

260. Augustine, De libero arbitrio 3.9.28.

261. Augustine, De civitate Dei 14.28.

262. See David Summers, " Maniera and Movement: The figura serpentinata," Art Quarterly 35 (1972):269-301; idem, " Contrapposto : Style and Meaning in Renaissance Art," Art Bulletin 59 (1977):336-61, citing Aristotle, Rhetorica 1410a; The "Art" of Rhetoric , trans. John Henry Freese (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1926), 393; Leonardo da Vinci, Trattato della pintura 271; Treatise on Painting (Codex urbinas latinus 1270) , trans. Amos Philip McMahon (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1956), 348.

263. See Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 1-27. Blue for the Virgin's drapery was not a liturgical, but a humanist, convention. Barasch, "Renaissance Color Conventions: Liturgy, Humanism, Workshops," in idem, " Imago homininis": Studies in the Language of Art (Vienna: IRSA, 1991), 176-77; rpt. from Color and Technique in Renaissance Painting: Italy and the North , ed. Marcia B. Hall (New York: n.p., 1987), 135-50.

264. Acta 3.30.

265. Barasch, Light and Color , 20, citing Alberti, Della pittura , p. 64; Barasch, Light and Color , 64, citing in n. 86 from da Vinci many references. For color see also Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art

from Brunelleschi to Seurat (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), 264-74; and for technical discussion, Hall, Color and Meaning: Practice and Theory in Renaissance Painting (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

266. Acta 3.29. For white as a ritual color for light and splendor see Barasch, "Renaissance Color Conventions," 174.

267. De coloribus 2.792a28-30; 3.793a15-16; 3.793b8-12. See H. B. Gottschalk, "The De coloribus and Its Author," Hermes 92 (1964):59-85. References to De coloribus and De rerum natura are cited in David E. Hahm, "Early Hellenistic Theories of Vision and the Perception of Colour," in Studies in Perception: Interrelations in the History of Philosophy and Science , ed. Peter K. Maehammer and Robert G. Turnbull (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1978), 83. For the tradition about feathers see also H. Guerlac, "Can There Be Colors in the Dark? Physical Color Theory before Newton," Journal of the History of Ideas 47 (1986):3-20.

268. Lucretius, De rerum natura 2.799-809; De rerum natura , trans. W. H. D. Rouse, rev. Martin Ferguson Smith (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 159.

269. Mary Luella Trowbridge, Philological Studies in Ancient Glass , University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, 13 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1928), 16-17.

270. Kemp, Science of Art , 269.

271. Stella Mary Newton, The Dress of the Venetians, 1495-1525 , Pasold Studies in Textile History, 7 (Brookfield, Vt.: Scolar, 1988), 19-20, 178.

272. See Jacqueline Herald, Renaissance Dress in Italy, 1400-1500 , History of Dress, 2 (New Jersey: Humanities, 1981), 73-75, without reference to peacocks. The comparison of shot fabrics to the peacock's feathers is mentioned by John Gage, Colour and Culture: The Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993), 140. He also discusses the peacock and alchemy, since its tail equaled all colors, 139-52.

273. Gage, "Color in Western Art: An Issue?" Art Bulletin 72 (1990):533.

274. Guazzo, Civil conversatione 2; Alessandro Piccolomini, Dialogo de la bella creanza de le donne , 20.

275. See Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr., "Alberti's Colour Theory: A Medieval Bottle without Renaissance Wine," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 32 (1969):128-29.

276. Gage, "Color in Western Art," 533 n. 145.

277. Lucretius, De rerum natura 2.826-33.

278. Ackerman, "On Early Renaissance Color Theory and Practice," 13-14.

279. Summers, The Judgment of Sense: Renaissance Naturalism and the Rise of Aesthetics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 46.

280. Pseudo-Longinus, De sublimitate 17.3.

281. Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism 1.91-92; Outlines of Pyrrhonism , trans. R. G. Bury (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1933), 120.

282. For perspective see Kemp, Science of Art , 9-98; Michael Kubovy, The Psychology of Perspective and Renaissance Art (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, 1986); Edgerton, The Renaissance Rediscovery of Linear Perspective (New York: Basic Books, 1975); James Elkins, "Renaissance Perspectives," Journal of the History of Ideas 53 (1992):209-29.

283. Leonardo da Vinci, Windsor, Royal Library, MS W, fol. 19150a, in Literary Works , 1:288.

284. Peter of Limoges, Liber de oculo morali , fols. Aiiiv, Bvii, cited by Baxandall, Painting and Experience , 104-5, with text at 173.

285. Summers, " Maniera and Movement," 269-301.

286. Katherine Morris Lester and Bess Viola Oerke, Accessories of Dress (Peoria, Ill.: Chas. A. Bennett, 1954), 390-91.

287. Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 6687-6723, cited by Susan K. Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance: A Study of "The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man" as a Medieval Treatise on Seeing and Remembering (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 70-71.

288. Schwarz, "Mirrors," 100-5, without the above example. His speculation about the use of mirrors by pilgrims seems plausible. Relics were compared with mirrors in Gregory of Nyssa's dream of his sister as precious relic that flashed in his eyes like a mirror reflecting sunlight, Vita Macrinae 15.12-22, cited by Brown, Body and Society , 300; and in Victricius of Rouen, De laudes sanctorum , on relics shining more brightly than the sun with a single invisible light to the universal faithful, cited by Eugene Vance, "Relics, Images, and the Mind of Guibert de Nogent," Semiotica 85 (1991):338.

289. Romain Roussel, Les pèlerinages à travers les siècles (Paris: Payot, 1954), 30; J. G. Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today: Why? Where? How? (London: SCM, 1988), 43; Freddy Raphaël, "Le pèlerinage: Approache sociologique," in idem et al., Les pèlerinages de l'antiquité biblique et classique à l'occident médiévale (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1973), 17; Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 171.

290. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 172-73.

291. "Veneranda dies" in Liber s. Jacobi 1.17, cited by Sumption, Pilgrimage , 173.

292. Naselli, "Diavoli bianchi e neri," 243-44.

293. Acta sanctorum , February 16; Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:129-32.

294. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.66.

295. Mark Franko, The Dancing Body in Renaissance Choreography (c. 1416-1589) (Birmingham, Ala.: Summa, 1986), 14-17.

296. See Anna Ivanova, The Dancing Spaniards (London: John Baker, 1970), 62-63; Reimbold, Pfau , 47-48.

297. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.20-21; trans. Butler, 4:223.

298. Jean de Meun, Roman de la rose 21346-21780; with pilgrim at 21347, bourdon at 21605, Hercules at 21632.

299. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 91.