1. Robert Wuthnow explores these ideas in Meaning and Moral Order: Explorations in Cultural Analysis (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), 155-56.

2. Ibid., 159.

3. Burgat, Islamic Movement in North Africa , 183. Also see the autobiographical accounts of Rached Ghannouchi and Tareq al-Bishri reproduced in ibid, 53-62 and 49-53 respectively.

4. Some groups within the Islamist movement fall outside this characterization, locating the central problem in the believers. As a result, such groups are less politicized. See Douglas K. Magnuson, "Islamic Reform in Contemporary Tunisia: Unity and Diversity," in The Political Economy of Reform , ed. I. William Zartman (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner), 169-92.

5. Scholarly work on the politics of human rights commonly differentiates between the activities of promotion, implementation, and enforcement. Of the three, promotion regimes require the weakest degree of commitment. See Donnelly, "International Human Rights," 603-5, and Forsythe, Internationalization of Human Rights , 57-58.

6. See "Présentation du dossier de presse relatif aux prisonniers politiques," in OMDH, L'Organisation marocaine des droits de l'homme à travers ses communiqués et déclarations (Casablanca: Imprimerie Editions maghrébines, 1991), 67-68.

7. William A. Gamson, "The Social Psychology of Collective Action," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory , ed. Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 68.

8. John D. McCarthy and Mayer Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 6 (1977): 1212-41; Bert Klandermans, "Mobilization and Participation: Social-Psychological Expansions of Resource Mobilization Theory," American Sociological Review 49 (October 1984): 583-600; and Jean L. Cohen, "Strategy or Identity: New Theoretical Paradigms and Contemporary Social Movements," Social Research 52 (Winter 1985): 663-716.

9. Carol McClurg Mueller, "Building Social Movement Theory," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory , ed. Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 17, and Claus Offe, "New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics," Social Research 52 (Winter 1985): 839-56.

10. Susan Eckstein, "Power and Popular Protest in Latin America," in Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements , ed. Susan Eckstein (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), and Gamson, "Social Psychology of Collective Action," 61.

11. David Snow, E. Burke Rochford, Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford, "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (August 1986): 464-81.

12. Sidney Tarrow, "Mentalities, Political Cultures, and Collective Action Frames: Constructing Meanings through Action," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory , ed. Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 189.

13. David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory , ed. Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 144.

14. Eckstein, "Power and Protest," 39.

15. David Laitin, "Political Culture and Political Preferences," American Political Science Review 82, no. 2 (1988): 589-93, has argued that opposition traditions as well as traditions lending support to the regime in power must be included in consideration of political culture.

16. Wuthnow, Meaning and Moral Order , 198-99.

17. Ibid.

18. Susan Waltz, "Clientelism. and Reform in Ben Ali's Tunisia," in Political Economy of Reform in Tunisia ," ed. I. W. Zartman (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner), 31-33. Also see Michel Camau, "Tunisie au présent: Une Modernité au-dessus de tout soupçon?" in Tunisie au présent: Une Modernité au-dessus de tout soupçon? ed. id. (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1987), 11-49.

19. Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); also see Snow et al., "Frame Alignment Processes."

20. From at least 1980 to 1993, Hadj Mohamed Mustafa Tabet, commissaire principal de police , had raped literally hundreds of Moroccan women, some of them minors, and had kept extensive videotaped records. Questions were raised about inproprieties in 1980, but the victim committed suicide and the story was sup-

pressed. Tabet was transferred to headquarters of the Sûreté nationale in Rabat, where his career continued to advance. In 1985 he was made chief police superintendent of a Casablanca prefecture, one of the four largest in the country. A complaint of rape was lodged in 1990 but was suppressed. In 1993, however, the story could not be contained. Tabet was swiftly tried; he was sentenced to death and executed in August. See "Sexe, pouvoir et vidéo," Jeune Afrique , no. 1681 (25-31 March 1993).

21. See the annual Amnesty International Report , 1981-84.

22. Mueller, "Building Social Movement Theory," 15.

23. Ligue tunisienne pour la défense des droits de l'homme (LTDH), Premier congrès national, Tunis, 14 février 1982 (Tunis: Maghreb-Editions), 14.

24. Ligue tunisienne pour la défense des droits de l'homme,"2 congrès national, Amilcar, 23-24 Mars 1985. Rapport Moral" (photocopied), 4.

25. L'OMDH à travers ses communiqués , 88, 110.

26. The FIDH, like most other human rights groups, has maintained neutrality on the Western Sahara, occasionally referring to a right of self-determination. See Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990).

27. From August 1990 to May 1991, nine of the LTDH's thirteen communiques addressed some aspect of the Gulf conflict.

28. Following the onset of protests in September, the league issued a communique expressing concern about reports of political brutality, arrests, and illegal searches, and in December, an LTDH delegation visited the minister of interior to discuss these concerns. In general, however, concern over the Gulf greatly overshadowed domestic issues.

29. "Conférence internationale sur les droits des Palestinéens: Le coup de la ligue,' Réalités , no. 319 (18-24 October 1991).

30. Albert O. Hirshman, Getting Ahead Collectively: Grassroots Experiences in Latin America (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984).