1. Eugene Berwanger, The Frontier Against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Extension Controversy (Urbana, Ill., 1967), p. 60; Leonard Pitt, The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846-1890 (Berkeley, 1966); Clyde Duniway, "Slavery in California After 1848," Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1905, I (Washington, D.C., 1906), 241-48; James Fisher, "The Struggle for Negro Testimony in California, 1851-1863," Southern California Quarterly LI (Dec. 1969), 313-24; Rudolph M. Lapp, Blacks in Gold Rush California (New Haven, Conn., 1977), pp. 126-58, 210-38; Philip M. Montesano, "The San Francisco Black Community, 1849-1890; The Quest for 'Equality Before the Law'" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1974); Gerald Stanley, "Racism and the Early Republican Party: The 1856 Presidential Election in California," Pacific Historical Review XLIII (May 1974), 171-87; Charles Wollenburg, ed., Ethnic Conflict in California History (Los Angeles, 1970); Wollenburg, All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools (Berkeley, 1976).

William A. Leidesdorff, a West Indian of African descent, came to Yerba Buena in the 1840s and enjoyed the non-racist climate. He prospered and became a member of the city council. Afro-Americans have claimed him as a member of their group, even though he did not represent himself as a Black person in California. Frank Soulé, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), p. 201; Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969]), pp. 107-9.

2. Duniway, "Slavery in California"; Fisher, "Struggle for Negro Testimony"; Paul Finkelman, "Slavery and Law in California" (unpublished essay in the author's possession); on intermarriage, San Francisco Spokesman, April 30, 1932, p. 3.

3. J. D. Brotherwick, Three Years in California (London, 1867), p. 163; cited in Berwanger, Frontier Against Slavery, p. 61; see Chapters 3 and 4.

4. San Francisco Pacific Appeal, Jan. 15, 1876, p. 1; San Francisco Call, April 7, 1897, p. 11, Sept. 29, 1897, p. 4; San Francisco Chronicle, Jan. 19, 1876, p. 2; Herbert Aptheker, A Documentary History of the Negro, I (New York, 1967 ed.), 373-74; Oakland Western Outlook, March 6, 1915, p. 2, March 13, 1915, p. 2.

5. Call, Sept. 29, 1897, p. 4, Sept. 28, 1897, p. 1.

6. Call, Sept. 28, 1897, p. 1, Sept. 29, 1897, p. 4; despite Jackson's claims, the San Francisco Vindicator, Nov. 17, 1888, p. 2, mentioned an incident in which he experienced discrimination; Call, Aug. 1, 1897, p. 16.

7. Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley, 1971); Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength, A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1964); and Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California, and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley, 1962).

8. James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon

Johnson (New York, 1968 ed.), pp. 207-8; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, [1944]), p. 186, used Johnson's views to publicize the favorable racial climate of California.

9. Incidents on streetcars are reported in the San Francisco Daily Alta California , Oct. 18, 1866, p. 1, involving Mary Ellen "Mammy" Pleasant; in the Pacific Appeal , Nov. 21, 1863, p. 2; and in the San Francisco Elevator , Feb. 18, 1870, p. 2. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 65; Elevator, May 14, 1869, p. 2; Western Outlook, March 6, 1915, p. 2; and San Francisco Sun, June 11, 1948, p. 4, refer to other kinds of discrimination.

10. For discussions of Black institutions in two other cities, see Daniel Perlman, "Organizations of the Free Negro in New York City, 1800-1860," The Journal of Negro History LVI (July 1971), 181-97, and John Blassingame, Black New Orleans: 1860-1880 (Chicago, 1973).

11. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 20, 1862, p. 2.

12. Ibid., June 7, 1862, p. 2; August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963) traces developments in Black social thought following Reconstruction.

13. Pacific Appeal, June 7, 1862, p. 2.

14. Elevator, June 10, 1870, p. 2. Until modern times, California law permitted separate but equal educational facilities; Wollenburg, All Deliberate Speed, pp. 26-27, 179; much of the scholarly literature focuses on nineteenth-century antislavery and civil rights struggles; see Chapter 7, note 1.

15. Pacific Appeal, June 7, 1862, p. 2.

16. Ibid. On the founding of the Mirror, see Proceedings of the Second Annual Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of California, December 10, 1856 (San Francisco, 1855).

17. Pacific Appeal, Aug. 29, 1863, p. 2, June 6, 1863, p. 3, June 20, 1863, p. 3, May 23, 1863, p. 3.

18. Proceedings of the First State Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of California (San Francisco, 1855); to view the conventions in historical perspective, see Howard Holman Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969 ed.), and A Survey of the Negro Convention Movement, 1830-1861 (New York, 1969 ed.); and Lapp, Blacks in Gold Rush California, pp. 186-209; Pacific Appeal, Aug. 1, 1863, pp. 2-3; Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2, Oct. 16, 1868, p. 2, and, on Yates, Nov. 27, 1868, p. 3.

19. Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2, Oct. 16, 1868, p. 2.

20. Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2.

21. Elevator, Nov. 3, 1865, p. 2, April 7, 1865, p. 1, Dec. 1, 1865, p. 2, June 25, 1867, p. 3; Pacific Appeal, Aug. 31, 1867, p. 3; African Methodist Episcopal Church, A.M.E. Church Proceedings (San Francisco, 1863), p. 24.

22. Pacific Appeal, May 30, 1863, pp. 2-3, Sept. 2, 1863, p. 1. Sept. 19, 1863, p. 3; Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1865 (hereafter referred to as City Directory, with the appropriate year); Elevator, Nov. 3, 1865, p. 2, March 30, 1866, p. 2, June 17, 1870, p. 2. James R. Starkey, from Newbern, North Carolina, obtained the funds for his freedom by writing northern abolitionists; Carter G. Woodson, The Mind of the Negro as Reflected in Letters Written During the Crisis (Washington, D.C., 1926), pp. 76-82, reprints Starkey's letters. San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, April 23, 1904, p. 2; Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7 discusses Theophilus B. Morton and J. C. Rivers, though not by name; also, see the Oakland Independent, Dec. 14, 1929, p. 1.

23. Elevator, Nov. 3, 1865, p. 2, June 25, 1863, p. 3; Pacific Appeal, June 20, 1863, p. 3; Martin Robison Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (New York, 1968 ed.), p. 104.

24. New York Weekly Anglo-African, Nov. 26, 1859, p. 1; Pacific Appeal, April 12, 1862, p. 2; Elevator, June 25, 1869, p. 3, June 20, 1874, p. 3, June 27, 1874, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 134, 146, 190-91, 194-97; Chronicle, Jan. 18, 1922, p. 14.

25. The classic critique of Black middle-class life is, of course, E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie (Glencoe, Ill., 1957). James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton, [1975]) discusses the postbellum activities of these humanitarians, including some Black reformers, but does not mention San Franciscans.

26. Richard Robert Wright, The Bishops of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (Nashville, Tenn., 1963), pp. 350-52; Pacific Appeal, June 6, 1863, p. 3.

27. Wright, Bishops, pp. 350-52, 551, quoted in Larry George Murphy, "Equality Before the Law: The Struggle of Nineteenth-Century Black Californians for Social and Political Justice" (Ph.D. diss., Graduate Theological Union, 1973), p. 67; Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), Jan. 21, 1864, p. 10, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153; Pacific Appeal, June 6, 1863, p. 3. The Weekly Anglo-African, Jan. 14, 1860, p. 3, claimed Ward had "but few equals in the A.M.E. pulpit." See Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2, for the steamboat passenger's letter.

28. Weekly Anglo-African, Jan. 14, 1860, p. 3; Wright, Bishops, pp. 350-52; Pacific Appeal, June 6, 1863, p. 3.

29. Sue Bailey Thurman, Pioneers of Negro Origin in California (San Francisco, 1949); David Henry Bradley, Sr., A History of the A.M.E. Zion Church, 2 vols. (Nashville, Tenn., [1956 and 1957]), I: 162-67, II: 38; on John Jamison Moore, see Moore's History of the A.M.E. Zion Church (York, Pa., 1884), pp. 367-73; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 160; City Directory, 1862, p. 599 and 1865, p. 552; Christian Recorder, Jan. 21, 1864, p. 10. A copy of the Lunar Visitor (San Francisco), I (Feb. 1862) is in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

30. Alexander Walters, My Life and Work (New York, [1917]), pp. 45-49. Walters claimed: "The three years I spent in San Francisco were the happiest and most devoted of all my life." He there met Mary E. Pleasants, who donated two hundred dollars for him to attend a church conference in New York City in 1884 (p. 46).

31. Call, April 27, 1889, p. 5; and New York Age, May 18, 1889, p. 41; see also Weekly Anglo-African, June 23, 1860, p. 2, and July 7, 1860, p. 1; Delany, Condition, pp. 102-4; Irving Garland Penn, The Afro-American Press and Its Editors (Springfield, Mass., 1891), p. 91-99; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 252-53; Aptheker, Documentary History, 1:99, 109, 133, 163-64, 238, 235, 11:624, 651; for an account of Bell's character, Elevator, July 3, 1868, p. 2; Dec. 21, 1872, p. 2, Dec. 29, 1872, p. 2 for a possible recounting of Bell's childhood. Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York, [1969]), pp. 20, 31, 95, 106-7, 123, 171; Howard Holman Bell, "The Negro Convention Movement, 1830-1860, New Perspectives," Negro History Bulletin XIV (Feb. 1951), 103-5; Bell, "National Negro Conventions of the Middle 1840s: Moral Suasion vs. Political Action," The Journal of Negro History XLII (Oct. 1957), 247-60; Philip M. Montesano, "Philip Alexander Bell, San Francisco Black Community Politician of the 1860s" (Typed manuscript, Special Collections, San Francisco Public Library); William Wells Brown, The Rising Sun, or The Antecedents and Advancement of the Colored Race (Boston, 1876), pp. 470-72; Sally Garey, "Some Aspects of Mid-Nineteenth Century Black Uplift: Philip A. Bell and the San Francisco Elevator " (Seminar paper, University of California, Berkeley, 1967) introduced me to the journalist and his newspapers.

32. Aptheker, Documentary History, I: 109, 133, 163, 164, 238; Age, May 11, 1889, p. 4, May 18, 1889, p. 1; Call, April 27, 1889, p. 5; Elevator, July 14, 1865, p. 2, Dec. 21, 1872, p. 2, Dec. 29, 1872, p. 2; Quarles, Black Abolitionists, p. 20; Bell, "Negro Conventions," p. 258; Delany, Condition, pp. 102-3.

33. Bell, "Negro Conventions," pp. 257-60; Age, May 11, 1889, p. 4, May 18, 1889, p. 1; see Martin R. Delany's depiction of Bell in Blake, or The Huts of America (Boston, [1970]), pp. 157, 188, 318-19.

34. Weekly Anglo-African, June 23, 1860, p. 2, July 7, 1860, p. 1; on the famous case of the California slave, Rudolph M. Lapp, Archy Lee, A California Fugitive Slave (San Francisco, 1969); Elevator, May 6, 1879, p. 3; Alta California, Dec. 4, 1879, p. 1, cited in Montesano, "Philip Alexander Bell," p. 17.

35. George P. Rowell and Co., American Newspaper Directory (New York, 1869) gives circulations of 800 each for the Pacific Appeal and the Elevator . The San Francisco Executive Committee claimed it cost $150 per month to support a "first-class weekly paper" like the Mirror of the Times: Elevator, May 26, 1865, p. 3; Pacific Appeal , March 6, 1876, on the hardships Bell endured in his old age; Call , April 27, 1889, p. 5.

36. Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Hartford, Conn., 1881); The Colored American, Pacific Appeal, and Elevator are available for the interested reader. William M. Trotter, editor of the Boston Guardian and opponent of Booker T. Washington, also suffered a tragic end; see Stephen R. Fox, The Guardian of Boston: William Monroe Trotter (New York, 1971).

37. Francis N. Lortie, Jr., "San Francisco's Black Community, 1870-1890: Dilemma in the Struggle for Equality" (M.A. thesis, San Francisco State College, 1970), pp. 32-39; Elevator, Sept. 8, 1888, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 253-56, 260-61; Pacific Coast Appeal, Dec. 5, 1903, p. 2.

38. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 253; San Francisco Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; William J. Simmons, Men of Mark (Chicago, 1970 ed.), pp. 711-12; Emma Lou Thornbrough, "American Negro Newspapers, 1880-1914," Business History Review XL (Winter 1966), 467-90 analyzes the successes and failures of Black journals. Only a few issues of the Vindicator and the Sentinel remain.

39. Quoted in Robert C. Francis, "A History of Negro Business in the San Francisco Bay Region" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1928), pp. 35-36. Interview, E. A. Daly, Aug. 2, 1976; Oakland California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 2.

40. San Francisco Western Appeal, Aug. 20, 1926, p. 4; Independent, Dec. 14, 1929, p. 11; Oakland Tribune, Oct. 14, 1934.

41. Pacific Appeal, June 7, 1862, p. 2, April 5, 1862, p. 2; Elevator, Aug. 18, 1865, p. 2, Nov. 10, 1865, p. 3, Nov. 15, 1873, pp. 2-3; Chronicle, Sept. 1, 1881, p. 3, Oct. 12, 1882, p. 3; Call, Oct. 11, 1882, p. 3.

42. Pacific Appeal, March 7, 1863, p. 4, Sept. 20, 1862, p. 4; Daily Alta California, Sept. 17, 1889, p. 4; Chronicle, Oct. 29, 1889, pp. 7-8; Articles of Incorporation of the Afro-American State League of California, Office of the Secretary of State, California State Archives; T. B. Morton, Vindication of Honorable M. M. Estee. Address delivered by T. B. Morton, president of the Afro-American League of San Francisco at its regular Monthly meeting, July 2, 1894 (San Francisco, 1894); Chronicle, Jan. 9, 1903, p. 9, Aug. 7, 1903, p. 7, Jan. 12, 1903, p. 10, Sept. 17, 1904, p. 5; Western Outlook, Dec. 10, 1927, p. 1, June 11, 1927, p. 1. See also Emma Lou Thornbrough, "The National Afro-American League, 1887-1908," The Journal of Southern History XVII (Nov. 1961), 494-512.

43. Articles of Incorporation of the Afro-American State League of California, Office of the Secretary of State, California State Archives.

44. Pacific Appeal, June 21, 1862, p. 3; Elevator, Nov. 10, 1865, p. 3, Nov. 17, 1865, p. 3; April 22, 1870, p. 3; Call, July 3, 1898, p. 71.

45. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro Church (Atlanta, Ga., 1903); E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago, 1966 rev. and abridged ed.); Melvin D. Williams, Community in a Black Pentecostal Church: An Anthropological Study (Pittsburgh, 1974) is an excellent analysis of the role of the church in the life of poor and working-class Black urbanites.

46. Pacific Appeal, May 5, 1862, p. 1, June 6, 1863, p. 3; Frederick Douglass' Paper

(Rochester, N.Y.), Sept. 22, 1854, p. 4; City Directory, 1862, p. 552; 1865, p. 599; Christian Recorder , Aug. 29, 1863, p. 137; Weekly Anglo-African , Nov. 19, 1859, p. 1.

47. Christian Recorder, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153, Jan. 21, 1864, p. 10; Pacific Appeal, Nov. 7, 1863, p. 3, March 5, 1864, p. 3; Elevator, April 7, 1865, p. 2; City Directory, 1865, p. 599.

48. City Directory, 1872, pp. 875-76; Elevator, April 18, 1874, p. 2.

49. Christian Recorder, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153; City Directory, 1872 , p. 876; Elevator , Sept. 17, 1869, p. 2. Bishop John Jamison Moore described the San Francisco A.M.E. Zion Church in 1884 as "worth fifty thousand dollars, the colored people in this country having none which excell it." Moore, History , p. 370.

50. City Directory, 1865, p. 599; Elevator, March 18, 1869, p. 2, April 25, 1874, p. 2.

51. A.M.E. Church, A.M.E. Church Proceedings, 1904, tables following p. 34; for the Oakland churches of the 1930s, see Spokesman, Feb. 16, 1933, p. 4. Third Baptist Church, Through His Power, at the California Historical Society.

52. Pacific Appeal, May 24, 1862, p. 2, June 7, 1862, p. 2, April 5, 1862, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers . Articles and histories of special interest for Negroes were also published, as well as articles on Mohammed the prophet, the customs of Abyssinians, the underground railroad in New York, and the history of the Negro race; Elevator, Jan. 18, 1873, p. 2, March 2, 1866, p. 1, March 9, 1866, p. 2, March 12, 1869, p. 1; Pacific Appeal, Nov. 18, 25, 1871, p. 1.

53. Daily Alta California, Nov. 29, 1889, p. 8; Elevator, Jan. 5, 1866, p. 2. Edwin S. Redkey, Black Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back to Africa Movements, 1890-1910 (New Haven, Conn., 1969) discusses Negroes and Africa at the turn of the century.

54. Elevator, July 7, 1865, p. 2, May 14, 1869, p. 2; Pacific Appeal, July 6, 1872, p. 2; Pacific Coast Appeal, May 3, 1902, pp. 4-5; Call, June 6, 1894, p. 3; Elevator, Jan. 8, 1869, p. 3, July 3, 1886, p. 2; Pacific Appeal, Dec. 12, 1863, p. 4, Aug. 15, 1863, p. 1, Feb. 27, 1864, p. 2; Western Outlook, Jan. 8, 1927, p. 2; Call, Sept. 15, 1896, p. 4; see the use of the expression "of African descent" in Elevator, Nov. 29, 1873, p. 2; and another use of "African" for American Blacks in Pacific Appeal, Sept. 6, 1862. Of course the word is also used in the name of the African Methodist Episcopal Churches; California Voice, Dec. 18, 1925, p. 2.

55. Vindicator, July 30, 1887, p. 1; Daily Alta California, Sept. 17, 1889, p. 4.

56. John A. Barber was elected Most Worshipful Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of F. and A.A.Y. Masons for the State of California, Elevator, July 7, 1865, p. 3; and Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; Pacific Appeal, Nov. 5, 1870, p. 2.

57. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 19, 1863, p. 4, Dec. 26, 1863, p. 4; Christian Recorder, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153, Oct. 22, 1864; Age, Dec. 14, 1890, p. 4.

58. Elevator, March 25, 1870, p. 2; Stockton Evening Mail, May 9, 1892, p. 5; I would like to thank Professor Howard Dodson for bringing the Stockton article to my attention.

59. Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7. Clipping in Afro-American file of George C. Pardee Papers, Banoroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

60. Elevator, Nov. 24, 1865, p. 2.