1. I am indebted to the following essays, which clarify the relationships between postmodernism, modernism, and the "crisis" of philosophy: Richard J. Bernstein, "Introduction," in Habermas and Modernity , ed. Richard J. Bernstein (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985); Kenneth Bayes, James Bohman, and Thomas McCarthy, "General Introduction," in After Philosophy: End or Transformation , ed. Kenneth Baynes, James Bohman, and Thomas McCarthy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978); Alice A. Jardine, Gynesis: Configurations of Women and Modernity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985); Jonathan Culler, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism After Structuralism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982); Andreas Huyssen, "Mapping the Postmodern,'' in The Crisis of Modernity: Recent Critical Theories of Culture and Society in the United States and West Germany , ed. Gunter H. Lenz and Kurt L. Shell (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1986); Samuel Weber, "Demarcations: Deconstruction, Institutionalization and Ambivalence," in Lenz and Shell, Crisis of Modernity; John Rajchman, Michel Foucault: The Freedom of Philosophy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Jonathan Arac, "Introduction," in Postmodernism and Politics , ed. Jonathan Arac (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986); David Hoy, "Jacques Derrida," in The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences , ed. Quentin Skinner (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Mark Philp, "Michel Foucault," in Skinner, The Return; Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics , 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Vincent Descombes, Modern French Philosophy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980).

2. For arguments about the need to protect, redeem, or fulfill the promises of Enlightenment and modernity, see Jürgen Habermas, "Neo-Conservative Culture Criticism in the United States and West Germany: An Intellectual Movement in Two Political Cultures," and "Questions and Counterquestions," both in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity; Herbert Marcuse, "On Hedonism,'' in his Negations (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); and also Martin Jay, "Habermas and Modernism," in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity .

3. Most notably in Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, The Dialectic of Enlightenment , trans. John Cumming (New York: Herder & Herder, 1972); but see also Max Horkheimer, Critique of Instrumental Reason (New York: Seabury, 1974).

4. The work of Adolf Grünbaum; for example, his "Epistemological Liabilities of the Clinical Appraisal of Psychoanalytic Theory," Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought 2 (1979): 451-526, is an instance of the reassertion of the philosopher's role as adjudicator of knowledge claims.

5. Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," reprinted in The Marx-Engels Reader , ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), p. 145.

6. "Defiance and infatuation are one and the same thing, and whoever defies them is thereby lost to the myth against which he set himself," Horkheimer and Adorno, The Dialectic , pp. 58-59. This is a note from "Excursus I," in Horkheimer and Adorno, The Dialectic , in which the authors utilize the story of Odysseus and the Sirens as a metaphor for the complex relations between myth, enlightenment, and the seduction or cunning of reason. On the relation(s) between postmodernism and earlier themes in critical theory, see Rainer Nagele, "The Scene of the Other: Theodor W. Adorno's Negative Dialectic in the Context of Post-structuralism," in Arac, Postmodernism and Politics; and Albrecht Wellmer, "Reason, Utopia, and the Dialectic of Enlightenment ," in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity .

7. Richard Rorty, "Pragmatism and Philosophy," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy , p. 47.

8. See, for example, Melanie Klein, "The Importance of Symbol-Formation in the Development of the Ego," in Melanie Klein, Love, Guilt and Reparation (New York: Delta, 1975). I am not claiming Klein's approach is the correct one; however I mention her work to suggest there may be many far more radical ways to "displace philosophy" than internal critiques or theories of writing.

9. I owe a great debt to Naomi Schor, "Dreaming Dissymetry: Barthes, Foucault and Sexual Difference," in Men in Feminism , ed. Alice Jardine and Paul Smith (New York: Methuen, 1987), for alerting me to some of these gaps.

10. Jacques Derrida, "Positions," in Jacques Derrida, Positions , trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 51. I will quote Derrida

extensively in this section because he emphasizes the importance of style as content; my own style of writing is quite different from his.

11. Jacques Derrida, "Violence and Metaphysics," in Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), pp. 91-92, 96.

12. Ibid., pp. 103-104. In its being as "face," and "absence," Derrida's "other'' has strong similarities to Lacan's "mother."

13. Ibid., pp. 147, 103.

14. Jacques Derrida, "Freud and the Scene of Writing," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, pp. 196, 200. On being, writing, and other, see also Jacques Derrida, "Difference," in Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), especially pp. 25-27.

15. Derrida, "Freud," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, pp. 211-212.

16. Ibid., pp. 230, 227. On this point see also Jacques Derrida, "Signature Event Context," in Derrida, Margins .

17. Jacques Derrida, "From Restricted to General Economy: A Hegelianism Without Reserve," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, pp. 259-260, 263, 268.

18. Ibid., pp. 269-272.

19. Derrida, "Violence," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, p. 147.

20. Derrida, "From Restricted to General Economy," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, p. 274.

21. Jacques Derrida, "Implications," in Derrida, Positions, p. 14.

22. Derrida, "Positions," in Derrida, Positions, p. 45.

23. Richard Rorty, "Pragmatism and Philosophy," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 28.

24. Derrida, "Positions," in Derrida, Positions, n. 32, p. 105.

25. Rorty, "Pragmatism," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 60.

26. Ibid., pp. 32-33, 57.

27. Ibid., p. 28.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid., pp. 30-31.

30. Ibid., pp. 32, 54.

31. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), p. 379.

32. Rorty, "Pragmatism," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 62.

33. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), p. 30.

34. Ibid., p. xxiii.

35. Ibid., p. 31.

36. Ibid., pp. 32, 35.

37. Ibid., pp. 33-35.

38. Michel Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge, ed. Colin Gordon (New York: Pantheon, 1980), p. 131.

39. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, pp. xxiv, 81.

40. Ibid., p. 127.

41. Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" in Michel Foucault, Language, Counter-memory, Practice, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977), p. 120. Rorty is also critical of Derrida's concept of writing. He does not believe there is any "beyond," and his concept of "language" is very different than Derrida's. Cf. Richard Rorty, Consequences of Pragmatism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), chaps. 6, 8.

42. Cf. Richard Rorty, "Postmodernist Bourgeois Liberalism," in Hermeneutics and Praxis, ed. Robert Hollinger (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985).

43. Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Foucault, Power/Knowledge, p. 114.

44. Michel Foucault, "Nietzsche, Genealogy, History," in Foucault, Language, p. 142.

45. Michel Foucault, "The Discourse on Language," in the appendix to Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Harper Colophon, 1976), p. 229.

46. Ibid.

47. Foucault, "Nietzsche," in Foucault, Language, p. 151.

48. Ibid., p. 163.

49. Michel Foucault, "Revolutionary Action: 'Until Now,'" in Foucault, Language, pp. 221-222.

50. Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Foucault, Power/Knowledge, p. 119.

51. Ibid., p. 125.

52. Michel Foucault, "On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress," in Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault, pp. 235-237.

53. Richard J. Bernstein, "Philosophy in the Conversation of Mankind," in Hollinger, Hermeneutics and Praxis; Paul A. Bove, "The Ineluctibiity of Difference: Scientific Pluralism and the Critical Intelligence," in Arac, Postmodernism and Politics; and Cornel West, "The Politics of American Neo-Pragmatism," in Post-Analytic Philosophy, ed. John Rajchman and Cornel West (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), discuss this problem from nonfeminist view-points.

54. Kathy Ferguson's work suggests some of the alterations that would result. See especially her The Feminist Case Against Bureaucracy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), chap. 2.

55. It would be interesting, for example, to compare Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America (New York: Viking Press, 1976), with Foucault's methods and histories in relation to gender; see also Ferguson, The Feminist Case, especially the preface and chap. 5; and Susan Rubin Suleiman, ed., The Female Body in Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985).

56. Jacques Derrida, Spurs: Nietzsche's Styles, trans. Barbara Harlow (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 51. My reading of this text has benefited from Jardine's analysis of it in Gynesis, chap. 9. However I find her reading insufficiently critical of the gendered nature of Derrida's categories.

57. Derrida, Spurs, pp. 101, 103.

58. Jardine, Gynesis, p. 194.

59. Derrida, Spurs, pp. 61, 65, 67, 107.

60. Schor, "Dreaming Dissymmetry," p. 110.

61. For a discussion of Plato, cf. Luce Irigaray, Speculum of the Other Woman, trans. Gillian C. Gill (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), especially "Plato's Hysteria." On Rousseau cf. Susan Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), especially part 2. I have also discussed the (unconscious) effects of gender relations on Plato and Rousseau's philosophies in Jane Flax, "Political Philosophy and the Patriarchal Unconscious: A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Epistemology and Metaphysics," in Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology and Philosophy of Science, ed. Sandra Harding and Menu Hintikka (Boston: D. Reidel, 1983).

62. Cf. Okin, Women in Western, for an extended discussion of this point.

63. Luce Irigaray, "Commodities Among Themselves," in Luce Irigaray, This Sex Which Is Not One, trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985).

64. This is Schor's suggestion. See her "Dreaming Dissymmetry," p. 109.

65. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, p. 82.

66. Cf. Richard Rorty's apt critique of Lyotard in his "Habermas and Lyotard on Postmodernity," in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity .

67. One could not integrate the traits of the good enough mother as presented by D. W. Winnicott (cf. Chapter 4) with Foucault's aesthetic subjectivity.

68. Cf. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), especially pp. 747-748. Foucault tries to distinguish his views from Sartre's in his "On the Genealogy of Ethics," in Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault, p. 237.

69. On the problems of reconciling Foucault's politics and ideas, see Rajchman, Michel Foucault, chap. 2; and Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault, pp. 253-264. Problems of gender or child rearing are not addressed in

either of these works. Foucault was evidently rethinking some of his ideas about subjectivity shortly before his death. See Luther H. Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton, Technologies of the Self (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988).

70. Richard Rorty, "Freud and Moral Reflection," in Pragmatism's Freud: The Moral Disposition of Psychoanalysis, ed. Joseph H. Smith and William Kerrigan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986). Derrida naturally reconstructs the unconscious as the scene of "writing," the other, and chance. See his "My Chances/ Mes chance: A Rendezvous with Some Epicurean Stereophonies," in Taking Chances: Derrida, Psychoanalysis and Literature , ed. Joseph H. Smith and William Kerrigan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984).

71. Rorty, "Freud," in Smith and Kerrigan, Pragmatism's Freud, pp. 5, 7.

72. I discuss part of the treatment of a borderline patient in Jane Flax, "Remembering the Selves: Is the Repressed Gendered?" Michigan Quarterly Review 26, no. 1 (Winter 1987): 92-110.

73. Rorty, "Pragmatism and Philosophy," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 52, suggests, "some intuitions should be deliberately repressed."

74. Hanna Pitkin, "Justice: On Relating Private and Public," Political Theory 9, no. 3 (August 1981): 327-352.