1. Wang Dunqing, "Manhua zhan," JWMH 1 (20 September 1937): 1.

2. See Huang Mao, Manhua yishu jianghua, p. 36.

3. Xuan Wenjie, "Kang-Ri zhanzheng shiqi de manhua xuanchuandui," Meishu 6 (25 July 1979): 37-38.

4. Ibid., p. 39.

5. Ibid.

6. Zhang Wenyuan, "Zhongguo manhua yundong de huigu yu qianzhan," Wenchao yuekan 2.3 (1 January 1947): 606.

7. A successful cartoon show was held in Beiping (Beijing) in July 1937; see DGB (Tianjin), 7 July 1937, p. 15. Such shows were also held in the provinces. See, for example, the woodcut artist Li Hua's report from Nanning, Guangxi province, in JWRB, 12 January 1938, p. 3.

8. See Zhandi tongxun 3.11 (1 June 1940): 23-24.

9. For the above information, see Bi and Huang, Zhongguo manhua shi, pp. 168-176. See also Zhang Wenyuan, "Zhongguo manhua yundong de huigu yu qianzhan," pp. 606-608.

10. Bi and Huang, Zhongguo manhua shi, pp. 176-180.

11. Ibid., p. 96.

12. Hu Kao, "Zhanshi de manhuajie," in Kangzhan yu yishu (Chongqing: Duli chubanshe, n.d.), p. 8.

13. Interview with Zhang Leping, 19 November, 10 December 1989, Shanghai.

14. Cartoons were closely associated with woodcuts during the war. See, for example, the "Cartoons and Woodcuts" column in the Jiuwang ribao (National salvation daily), which began on 1 November 1939 (p. 4); and the "Woodcuts and Cartoons" column in the Xinhua ribao (New China daily), 21 August 1943, p. 4. See also Ji Zhi, ''Guanyu 'muke manhua,'" Xinhua ribao, 19 March 1942, p. 4; Liao Bingxiong, "Guanyu manmu hezuo," JWRB, 22 February 1940, p. 4.

15. Interview with Zhang Leping, 19 November, 10 December 1989, Shanghai.

16. Daniel Fitzpatrick called the swastika "the tumbling engine of destruction" ( As I Saw It [New York: Simon & Schuster, 1953], p. 10). For his anti-Nazi drawings, see ibid., esp. pp. 40, 43, 51, 87. Although Fitzpatrick's crayon-on-grained-paper technique found few imitators in China, his anti-Hitler works did make a strong impression on Chinese artists, especially his "Piece by Piece," which depicts a Japanese soldier using a bayonet to divide China into different occupied spheres, marking them with Japanese flags. See JWMH 3 (30 September 1937): 4.

17. For Szyk's anti-Nazi cartoons, see, for example, "New Order" and "A Madman's Dream," in his The New Order (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1941), n.p. Szyk also attacked Japanese militarists; see "Aryan Ally" in ibid.

18. David Freedberg, for example, has explored the role of images in religious controversies in European history, particularly in the wake of the Protestant Reformation; see The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989). R. W. Scribner uses broadsheets to examine the importance of images in the spread of the evangelical movement during the first half-century of the Reformation in Germany; see For the Sake of Simple Folk: Popular Propaganda for the German Reformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

19. Feng Zikai, Preface to Ou Mei manhua jingxuan, p. 1.

20. Interview with Liao Bingxiong, 3, 4 January 1990, Guangzhou.

21. For Liao's cartoons, see, for example, JWRB, 11 May 1939, p. 4, and 2 January 1940, p. 4. See also Liao, Bingxiong manhua (Guangzhou: Lingnan meishu chubanshe, 1984).

22. This cartoon first appeared in Fenghuo (Beacon-fire) 1 (5 September 1937). It was reprinted in Wencong (Literature) 1.6 (20 April 1938). For its influence, see Hu Feng's comments in Jian, wenyi, renmin (Shanghai: Nitu she, 1950), p. 89. The cartoon was shown during a touring cartoon exhibition; see Xuan Wenjie, "Kang-Ri zhanzheng shiqi de manhua xuanchuandui," p. 37. Other information is from Cai's letter to the author, 25 November 1988; and interview with Cai, 29 September 1989, Beijing.

23. This cartoon was subsequently redrawn and reprinted by Feng Zikai in a number of places. See, for example, Feng, Zhanshi xiang (N.p.: Kaiming shudian, 1945), p. 10; and China Weekly Review 88.6 (8 April 1939): 177. See also Feng's own description about this 1937 incident in his Feng Zikai sanwen xuanji (Shanghai : Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1981), pp. 171-172. In an accompanying piece, Feng portrayed another scene from Guangzhou: that of a child's head severed in an enemy's bombing attack. He accompanied the cartoon with another ci poem: "When the mad bombing begins/A mother, carrying her baby on her back, starts running/But before reaching the air raid shelter/The baby's tiny head is thrown into the air/Hot blood gushes out like a raging torrent" ( Zhanshi xiang, p. 11; YZF 76 [1 October 1938]: 154; China Weekly Review 88.7 [15 April 1939]: 207).

24. In QGXJ, pp. 86-87.

25. Ibid., p. 88.

26. Wolfram Eberhard, A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), p. 268.

27. In QGXJ, pp. 14, 68. See also Zhang E's piece "Fengkuang de yeshou" (A wild beast), Quanmin kangzhan 88 (16 September 1939): cover.

28. The British, for example, called Hitler the "Mad Dog of Europe"; see Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda (New York: Chelsea House, 1976), p. 113. The use of bestial imagery is of course loaded with racism; see John Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), esp. pp. 181-200, 234-261.

29. Charles Press, The Political Cartoon (New Brunswick, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1981), pp. 76-77.

30. Hu Kao, for example, portrayed China as a lion ( QGXJ, p. 55); traditional-style painter Zhang Shanzi compared China to a tiger (see Wenxian 3 [10 December 1938]: n.p.). Painters such as Gao Qifeng of the Lingnan School of Painting had also used lions to convey similar messages in the early decades of the Republican era; see Ralph Croizier, Art and Revolution in Modern China: The Lingnan (Cantonese) School of Painting, 1906-1951 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 40-41, 88-91.

31. See Dou Shi's cartoon "Hijacking the Young and Ignorant Prime Minister," in QGXJ, p. 48. Prince Konoe was of course no bystander in the war: he sided with the army and played an active role in promoting Japan's interests in Asia. See the discussion in James Crowley, Japan's Quest for Autonomy: National Security and Foreign Policy, 1930-1938 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), esp. chap. 6, "The China War."

32. See, for example, Rhodes, Propaganda, pp. 57, 103; and Stephen White, The Bolshevik Poster (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), p. 17.

33. See QGXJ, p. 62.

34. For one of numerous articles on hanjian, see Qian Junrui, "'Zhun hanjian' lun," Xin xueshi 2.3 (10 November 1937): 110-111.

35. See Te Wei's cartoon "The Coronation of the Renegade Wang Jingwei," on the cover of Quanmin kangzhan 118 (13 April 1940).

36. See Feng's "Putting on a Farce" and "A Puppet Show," in his Zhanshi xiang, pp. 33, 36.

37. See QGXJ, pp. 42, 82.

38. Ibid., p. 90.

39. One example is Hu Kao's cartoon of four women in uniform and its accompanying poem summing up their aspirations: "My second sister is a caring nurse/The youngest one fights the enemy on the battlefront/Their accomplishment is by no means inferior to that of men/A platoon of women warriors marches to the front" ( QGXJ, p. 113).

40. The legendary heroine was one of Feng Zikai's favorite archetypes during the war; see also his cartoon "Like Hua Mulan, a woman warrior is leaving home to join the army," in Zhandi manhua (Hong Kong: Yingshang buliedian tushu gongsi, 1939), n.p.

41. Mauldin's famous aspirin cartoon is a good example of the satirical type; see Mauldin, Up Front (Cleveland: World, 1945), p. 133, and pp. 27, 112, 214 for other examples.

42. As in Hu Kao's "A Badly Wounded Warrior," in QGXJ, p. 31.

43. See Bi and Huang, Zhongguo manhua shi, pl. 207.

44. See, for example, Lu Shaofei's piece on guerilla warfare in QGXJ, p. 43.

45. See Low's "Do you smell something burning?" (1938) in his Cartoon History of Our Times, pp. 64-65.

46. See, for example, Cai Ruohong's "The Quagmire of Japan's Future," in QGXJ, p. 16; Jiang Mi's "Japan's Quagmire," in Bi and Huang, Zhongguo manhua shi, pl. 215; Li Fanfu's "Sink Deeper and Deeper into the Quagmire," in QGXJ, p. 46. David Low used a similar image in his piece "Further and Deeper"; see A Cartoon History of Our Times, pp. 60-61.

47. Ye Qianyu, Ye Qianyu manhua xuan, pp. 118-154, esp. p. 150.

48. Ding Cong, Zuotian de shiqing (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1984), pp. 2-3 (reprinted in Fortune, August 1945, pp. 118-119).

49. Liao Bingxiong, Bingxiong manhua, n.p.

50. See Zhang Guangyu, Xiyou manji (Beijing: Renmin meishu chubanshe, 1983), esp. chaps. 2, 4, and 9.

51. See Liao Bingxiong, Bingxiong manhua, n.p. A detailed analysis of cartoons during the civil war period is beyond the scope of this book; for a discussion, see my article "The Fuming Image: Cartoons and Public Opinion in Late Republican China, 1945 to 1949," Comparative Studies in Society and History (forthcoming).

52. See Huashang bao, 14 August 1941, p. 3.

53. Ning, "Xin meishu yundong," Huashang bao, 19 June 1941, p. 3; Jianxun, "Xin meishu yundong zhankai zhong—wo de jidian yijian," Huashang bao, 6 August 1941, p. 3; Te Wei, "Lian ren dai yi," Huashang bao, 13 November 1941, p. 3.

54. Lai Shaoqi, "Manhua yu muke," in Qian, Hu, and Zhang, eds., Kangzhan de jingyan yu jiaoxun, pp. 15-17.

55. Quoted in Xinbo, "Wusheng de zhadan," p. 3.

56. Zhang Guangyu, "Guonei meishujie de qingzhuang," Huashang bao, 25 June 1941, p. 3.

57. Zhu Xingyi, "Wo suo xiji yu manhuajie de," Duli manhua 4 (10 November 1935): 3.

58. Hu Kao, "Xiwang yu manhuajie," p. 7.

59. Feng Yi, "Manhua Zhongguo jin bainian xuelei shi," Zazhi 6.2 (20 January 1940): 36.

60. Tang Yifan, "Kangzhan yu huihua," Dongfang zazhi 37.10 (16 May 1940): 27.

61. See Xinbo, "Wusheng de zhadan," p. 3; see also Huashang bao, 29 October 1943, p. 3.

62. Chen Chin-yun, "Art Chronicle," T'ien Hsia Monthly 11.3 (December-January 1940-1941): 270.

63. Shen Zhenhuang, "Duiyu manhua xuanchuan gongzuo de yijian," in Qian, Hu, and Zhang, eds., Kangzhan de jingyan yu jiaoxun, p. 224.

64. Huang Shiying, "Manhua gailun," in Chen Wangdao, ed., Xiaopinwen he manhua, p. 143.

65. See YZF 91 (1 January 1941): 214-215, esp. p. 215.

66. Huang Mao, Manhua yishu jianhua, p. 64.

67. Qianyu (Ye Qianyu), "Manhua de minzu xingshi." Ye, however, disagreed with others that China lacked a strong tradition of figure drawing.

68. Huang Mao, "Huihua Zhongguohua tanxie," JWRB, 12 May 1940, p. 4.

69. Ding Cong, Zuotian de shiqing, pp. 2-3.

70. Interview with Liao Bingxiong, 3, 4 January 1990, Guangzhou. See also Liao, Bingxiong manhua, passim.

71. Huang Mao, Du hua suibi (Hong Kong: Renjian shuwu, 1949), pp. 3-4.

72. Quoted in Huang Mao, Manhua yishu jianghua, p. 51.

73. See "Art Chronicle," T'ien Hsia Monthly 9.1 (August 1939): 83 and illustrations; Huashang bao, 23 July 1941, p. 3; Wenxian 3 (10 December 1938): n.p.

74. Xinbo, "Xiang Sulian ji shijie jinbu de huajia xuexi," Huashang bao, 30 July 1941, p. 3.

75. On Kuriyagawa Hakuson, see SDMH 10 (20 October 1934): n.p.; on William Gropper, see SDMH 22 (20 October 1935): n.p.

76. Lu Shaofei, "Kangzhan yu manhua," Dikang sanrikan 15 (6 October 1937): 9.

77. Lu Xun, "Mantan 'manhua,'" p. 10.

78. Huang Miaozi, "Tan manhua," Manhuajie 7 (5 November 1936): n.p.

79. Ling He, Preface to Manhua he shenghuo 1.3 (20 January 1936): 3.

80. Wang Dunqing, "Manhua de xuanchuan xing," SDMH 17 (20 May 1935): n.p.

81. Hu Kao, "Jianli kangzhan manhua de lilun," Zhandi 2 (5 April 1938): 35.

82. Hu Kao, "Xiwang yu manhuajie," p. 7.

83. Xinbo, "Wusheng de zhadan," p. 3.

84. Li Qun, "Xuanchuanhua zai nongcun," Dikang sanrikan 17 (13 October 1937): 8.

85. Hu Kao, "Baodao hua", Huashang bao, 3 December 1941, p. 3; idem, "Jianli kangzhan manhua de lilun," p. 35.

86. Huang Mao, "Manhua de xuanchuan fangshi," Kangjian tongsu huakan 2.2 (1 July 1942): 18-19.

87. Cao Bohan, Xuanchuan jishu duben (N.p.: Shenghuo shudian, 1938), pp. 74-75.

88. I am indebted to R. W. Scribner ( For the Sake of Simple Folk, p. 244) for the terms anchorage and relay and their explanation.

89. Huang Miaozi, "Wo de manhua lilun," in Chen Wangdao, ed., Xiaopinwen he manhua, p. 61.

90. See T'ien Hsia Monthly 7.2 (September 1938): 207; also Dongfang huakan 3.11 (February 1941): 11, inter alia. Shen's earlier pieces, mostly filled with patriotic sentiments, appeared in Shida manhua and Manhuajie —for example, Shida manhua 24 (20 December 1935): n.p.; Manhuajie 6 (5 September 1936): cover.

91. Zhao Wangyun, Zhao Wangyun nongcun xiesheng ji (Tianjin: Dagong bao she, 1934). For a discussion of Zhao's drawings, see YZF 12 (1 March 1936): 588-589. Zhao's sketches also appeared in YZF, January 1937-June 1937.

92. Feng Yuxiang, Preface to Zhao Wangyun, Zhao Wangyun nongcun xiesheng ji, p. 3; Xiao Qian, Wei dai ditu de lüren—Xiao Qian huiyilu (Hong Kong: Xiangjiang chuban gongsi, 1988), p. 96.

93. Cao Juren, "Ping Zhao Wangyun Nongcun xiesheng ji ji qi tishi," Shen bao, 30 January 1934, p. 15.

94. See QGXJ, p. 108.

95. Ye Qianyu, Hua yu lun hua, p. 174.

96. Shen Zhenhuang, "Duiyu manhua xuanchuan gongzuo de yijian," pp. 222-223.

97. There were many wartime cartoons on armed peasants. In addition to the two mentioned above, see, for example, JWRB, 29 January 1938, p. 4.

98. Huang Miaozi, "Kangzhan yilai de Zhongguo manhua," pp. 4-5.

99. Ye Qianyu, "Lüetan Zhongguo de manhua yishu."

100. On the number of wartime cartoon magazines, see Bi and Huang, Zhongguo manhua shi, pp. 152, 160, 176-177. With the exception of National Mobilizers Pictorial, which printed about 50,00 to 60,00 copies per issue (see QGXJ, p. 5), the circulation of other wartime cartoon magazines is not clear. But according to Lu Shaofei, the majority printed only "a few thousand copies per issue" (interview, 26 October 1989, Beijing).

101. This piece was widely reprinted. See, for example, China Weekly Review 88.6 (8 April 1939): 177; and Xu Wancheng, Kangzhan banian Chongqing huaxu (Tidbits of Chongqing during the eight-year War of Resistance) (Shanghai: Longwen shudian, 1946), cover.

102. For a general discussion of Feng's cartoons, see Christoph Harbsmeier, The Cartoonist Feng Zikai: Social Realism with a Buddhist Face (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1984); and Shuen-shuen Hung, "Feng Tzu-k'ai: His Art and Thought" (M.A. thesis, Michigan State University, 1986). Feng's cartoons became so popular in the 1930s that many others attempted to imitate his work. A certain "Feng Zikai the Second" (Cikai) even appeared. See YZF 10 (16 July 1939): 452-454.

103. Feng wrote a score of books on art theory; most notable among them are Yishu gailun (An introduction to art, 1928), Xiandai yishu shier jiang (Twelve talks on modern art, 1928), and Yishu conghua (Miscellaneous talks on art, 1935).

104. See, for example, Zhao Jingshen, "Feng Zikai he tade xiaopinwen," Renjian shi 30 (20 June 1935): 14-16.

105. Feng Zikai, Husheng huaji, 6 vols. (reprinted Taibei: Chunwenxue chubanshe, 1981). See Feng Yiyin et al., Feng Zikai zhuan (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1983), for detail.

106. Feng's cartoons began to appear regularly in Xiaoshuo yuebao in the mid-1920s—for example, 17. 1 (10 January 1926): inside title page, 12; 17.3 (10 March 1926): inside title page. For Shen bao, see 24, 25 May 1934 et seq.

107. For a general discussion of how children are perceived in modern China, see Chang-tai Hung, Going to the People, chap. 5.

108. In Feng's famous article "Cong haizi dedao de qishi" (Inspiration that I received from children), he argued that an adult's world is one of corruption, endless cravings, vanity, and fame; but when children look at the world, they see only beauty, innocence, peace, and joy. See Feng, Yuanyuantang suibi (Shanghai: Kaiming shudian, 1948), pp. 39-40. For a discussion of Feng's views on children, see Chang-tai Hung, "War and Peace in Feng Zikai's Wartime Cartoons," Modern China 16.1 (January 1990): 39-83.

109. Feng Zikai, Ertong xiang (N.p.: Kaiming shudian, 1945), p. 22.

110. Takehisa Yumeji, who illustrated a large number of newspapers and magazines during the late Meiji and Taisho eras, was one of Feng's favorite Japanese painters; see Feng, Yuanyuantang jiwai yiwen, ed. Ming Chuan (Hong Kong: Wenxue chubanshe, 1979), p. 1. See also, for example, Takehisa Yumeji, Kodomo no sekai (Tokyo: Ryuseikaku, 1970).

111. See Feng Zikai, Gushi xinhua (N.p.: Kaiming shudian, 1945).

112. Feng Zikai, Chexiang shehui (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu yinshua gongsi, 1935), p. 227.

113. Feng Zikai, Yishu quwei (N.p.: Kaiming shudian, 1946), pp. 93-94.

114. See Feng Zikai, Chexiang shehui, esp. pp. 1-9.

115. Fang Zhizhong, "Minzu ziwei yu manhua," Manhua he shenghuo 1.3 (10 January 1936): 11.

116. Huang Mao, Manhua yishu jianghua, p. 49.

117. Feng Zikai, Preface to Jieyu manhua (Shanghai: Wanye shudian, 1947).

118. In Feng Zikai, Yuanyuantang jiwai yiwen, pp. 90-99, esp. p. 99.

119. Feng Zikai, "Fo wu ling" (Buddha has no magic power), in Yuanyuantang jiwai yiwen, p. 111.

120. Feng Zikai, "Sansha yu shadai" (Loose sand and sandbags), in ibid., p. 117.

121. Feng Zikai, "Yishu bineng jianguo," Yuzhou feng yikan 2 (16 March 1939): 52-53, esp. p. 53.

122. Ke Ling, "Kangzhan zhong de Feng Zikai xiansheng," in Wen Zaidao et al., Biangu ji, pp. 354-362.

123. See Feng Zikai, Zhanshi xiang, pp. 16, 28, 40.

124. See Feng Zikai, Zhandi manhua, cartoon no. 4.

125. Feng Zikai, "In the Occupied Territory," in Zhanshi xiang, p. 43.

126. See Feng Zikai, "Ruining [Chinese] culture," Zhoubao 8 (27 October 1945): cover.

127. See Feng Zikai, Kechuang manhua (Guilin: Jinri wenyishe, 1943), p. 11.

128. Feng Zikai, "Zhongguo jiu xiang ke dashu," Yuzhou feng yikan 1 (1 March 1939): 6.

129. Feng Zikai, "Ze wu hui zhi yi" (Do not burn it), in Yuanyuantang jiwai yiwen, pp. 115-116.

130. Feng Zikai, Manhua de miaofa, pp. 23-24.

131. Ibid., p. 24

132. Ibid., pp. 35-36.

133. Feng Zikai, "Ze wu hui zhi yi," in Yuanyuantang jiwai yiwen, p. 116.

134. See Feng Zikai's letter in Wanxiang 3.7 (1 January 1944): 67.

135. Feng Zikai, Zhandi manhua. See also Feng, Kechuang manhua, "Preface."

136. See Feng, "Yanhui zhi ku" (The agony of attending dinner parties), in LY 132 (1 July 1947): 621-622.

137. See Feng Huazhan's (Feng Zikai's son) account in Preface to Feng Zikai sanwen xuanji, p. 19.

138. W. A. Coupe, "Observations on a Theory of Political Caricature," Comparative Studies in Society and History 11.1 (January 1969): 82.

139. As in his piece "In Panic," which portrays the plight of refugees—that is, the consequences of the Japanese actions. See Feng, Zhanshi xiang, p. 24.

140. Feng Zikai, "Tan kangzhan gequ," Zhandi 4 (5 May 1938): 100.

141. Feng Zikai, Manhua de miaofa, pp. 21-22.

142. Feng Zikai, "Shengji," in Feng, Yuanyuantang zaibi (N.p.: Kaiming shudian, 1948), p. 23.