1. Helen C. White, The Tudor Books of Private Devotion (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1951), 246-47; cf. Sacvan Bercovitch, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 25; Bossy, Christianity in the West , 94.

2. For example, the passion sermons of Thomas Adams and Lancelot Andrewes. The only Lutheran exemplar I have come across is Foxe's passion sermon: A Sermon of Christ crucified, preached at Paules Crosse (1570), in The

English Sermons of John Foxe , intro. Warren Wooden (Delmar, N.Y.: Scholars' Facsimiles, 1978). Sibbes's passion sermons are anomalous; they seem influenced by the Calvinist paradigm, but all the hard edges have been softened, and I am primarily interested in hard edges.

3. Rather than confuse the reader with a lot of inessential information about these minor figures, I have generally chosen to cite in the text the works of Heinsius, Calvin, Hall, and (later) Nashe, mentioning the more obscure works in the footnotes. But a brief comment on these authors (based on the DNB, STC , and title pages of individual works) is not out of place.

Thomas Wilson (1563-1622): From 1586 to his death, Wilson was the rector of St. George the Martyr at Canterbury, although more than once he was accused of nonconformity. Christs Farewell to Jerusalem and last Prophesie was preached at the funeral of Doctor Colfe, vice dean of Canterbury Cathedral, on October 12, 1613, and published in London the next year. Wilson describes himself on the title page as "Minister of Gods word," suggesting Puritan sympathies.

Samuel Walsall (d. 1626): At the time of his death, Walsall was master of Corpus Christi, Cambridge; The Life and Death of Jesus Christ (Cambridge, 1607) was originally preached before James at Royston and printed five times between 1607 and 1622. The sermon is not exclusively "Calvinist," since it quotes extensively from Saint Bernard (who was, however, the one medieval theologian frequently cited by Calvinists).

Thomas Ailesbury [Aylesbury] (fl. 1622-59): The DNB describes Ailesbury as a Calvinist theologian. The Passion Sermon at Pauls-Crosse, upon Good-Friday last was published in London in 1626.

Bartholomew Chamberlaine, D.D.: The Passion of Christ, and the Benefits thereby (London, 1613) was first printed in 1584 and again, with variants, in 1613, 1615, and 1623.

Henry Jacob (1563-1624): Jacob was a Brownist and founder of first congregational church in England. A Treatise of the Sufferings and Victory of Christ, in the work of our redemption (London, 1597) was composed during one of Jacob's returns from exile, in response to Bishop Bilson's 1597 Paul's Cross sermon on Christ's descent into hell.

The only poem I have used is Nicholas Breton's "The Countesse of Penbrook's Passion," in vol. 1 of The Works in Verse and Prose , 2 vols., ed. Alexander Grosart, Chertsey Worthies' Library (1879; rpt. New York: AMS Press, 1966). This poem begins like the Calvinist passions, although it ends rather differently.

4. On the role of myth in relieving anxiety, see William J. Bouwsma, "Anxiety and the Formation of Early Modern Culture," in his A Usable Past: Essays in European Cultural History (Berkeley: University of California Press,1990), 157-89; Paul Ricoeur, The Symbolism of Evil , trans. Emerson Buchanan, Religious Perspectives 17 (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 5, 167-68.

5. Charles and Elaine Hallet, The Revenger's Madness: A Study of Revenge Tragedy Motifs (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980), 111; cf. Martin Mueller, Children of Oedipus and Other Essays on the Imitation of Greek Tragedy, 1550-1800 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980), 25; Michael Shaw, "The Female Intruder: Women in Fifth-Century Drama," Classical Philology 70 (1975): 258n.

6. One might also add here the Renaissance transformation of Terentian comedy into the tragic prodigal son plays discussed by Richard Helgerson in The Elizabethan Prodigals (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 3, 35.

7. This resemblance suggests that although Grotius's treatment of the Atonement is unprecedented, it is not merely anomalous; its disturbing acknowledgment of the violence lurking within Christian formularies does not distinguish De satisfactione from Calvinist orthodoxy but rather locates it within the discourses of the Protestant end myth.

8. William Empson, Seven Types of Ambiguity , 2d ed. (1947; rpt. New York: New Directions, 1966), 226-33; see also Louis Martz, The Poetry of Meditation: A Study in English Religious Literature of the Seventeenth Century , rev. ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 90-96. In fact, the Calvinist passion narratives evince much of the sadistic perversity that Empson attributes to Christianity as a whole in the final chapter of Milton's God (London: Chatto and Windus, 1961); unlike Professor Empson, however, I do not find this perversity typical of or intrinsic to Christianity.

9. Jean Delumeau, Sin and Fear: The Emergence of a Western Guilt Culture, Thirteenth—Eighteenth Centuries , trans. Eric Nicholson (New York: St. Martin's, 1990), 242-43.

10. Huldrich Zwingli, A briefe rehersal of the death resurrection, & ascention of Christ (London, c. 1561), 122.

11. Calvin, Harmony 3:240-41, 253, 256, 278, 281, 317.

12. Daniel Heinsius, The Mirrour of Humilitie: or two eloquent and acute Discourses upon the Nativitie and Passion of Christ , trans. I. H. (London, 1618), 63-64; Joseph Hall, The Works , ed. Philip Wynter, 10 vols. (Oxford: At the University Press, 1863), 2:647; Chamberlaine, The Passion of Christ , A5(v).

13. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 77.

14. Hall, Works 2:662.

15. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 70; cf. Hall, Works 2:641; Calvin, Harmony 3:248. The claim that the Jews killed Christ out of malice rather than ignorance is traditional; see Gavin Langmuir, History, Religion, and Antisemitism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 288.

16. This representation of agency in terms of inner moral or spiritual states—i.e., the soul or conscience—disappears from the scholarly commentaries discussed in chapter 1, which interpret the biblical narratives in terms of public, cultural logics rather than the orientation of the soul toward Good or

Evil. The point of this shift seems to be, at least in part, to remove the symbolic underpinnings of post-Reformation religious violence: the identification of one's opponent as the local incarnation of Evil. The scholarly exegetes depict Christ's persecutors as bureaucratic functionaries, not deicidal fiends. In this sense, their erasure of the soul performs an Erasmian exorcism; it is an attempt to banish demons from historical interpretation.

17. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 58.

18. This identification of Christ's torturers with the cultural other is powerfully inverted in Bartolome de Las Casas's Brevisima relacion de la Destruycion de las Indias occidentales (1539), twice translated into English during the Renaissance: once as The Spanish Colonie (trans. M. M. S. [London, 1583]) and then as The Tears of the Indians (trans. John Phillips [London, 1656; rpt. Stanford, Calif.: Academic Reprints, 1953]). In the opening chapter of the earlier edition, Las Casas describes the Indians as "very humble, very patient, very desirous of peace making, and peaceful.... very gentle, and very tender ... very poore folke, which possesse litle, neither yet do so much as desire to have much worldly goodes.... lambes so meeke" (A [r]-A2[v]). In my UCLA library copy, someone has written next to this description, "noble savage." This marginalium, however, is incorrect; Las Casas's adjectives cast the Indians as types of Christ, not savages, whether noble or otherwise. Conversely, Las Casas depicts the Spaniards in the same language used for Christ's torturers in the passion narratives; they are "as wolves, as lions, & and as tigres most cruel" (A2[v]). One's impressions that Las Casas is describing the Spanish conquest as a version of the Crucifixion—and that the Catholic Spaniards intended that imitatio —are confirmed by the dreadful story of how the soldiers "made certayne Gibbets long and low, in such sort, that the feete of the hanged on, touched in a maner the ground, every one enough for thirteeve [ sic ], in the honour and worship of our Saviour and his twelve Apostles (as they used to speake) and setting to fire, burned them all quick that were fastened'' (A4[v]). A similar irony occurs in Montaigne's essay on cannibals, but Las Casas's evocation of the Passion makes the inversion of the conventional contrast between barbarian and Christian more bitterly tragic.

19. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 55-57; cf. Hall, Works 2:646; Calvin, Harmony 3:263, 329.

20. Since most of these printed texts were originally preached, "hearer/ reader" might be the more accurate term for their audience, but to avoid such unidiomatic awkwardness, "reader" will have to stand for both.

21. This is the principal point of the two Elizabethan homilies for Good Friday, especially the first, which explains at the outset that if we consider "that for our sins this most innocent Lamb was driven to death, we shall have much more cause to bewail ourselves, that we were the cause of his death, than to cry out of the malice and cruelty of the Jews, which pursued him to his death"

( The Two Books of Homilies Appointed to be Read in Churches , ed. John Griffiths [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1859], 412).

22. Hall, Works 5:41.

23. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 65.

24. Chamberlaine, The Passion of Christ , C3(v).

25. Ibid., B8(r). In Calvin, however, the emphasis does not fall on tenderness but self-control (see below).

26. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 76-77.

27. Hall, Works 2:655. These outbursts of hatred are not a standard feature of Renaissance passion sermons; they do not occur in either Andrewes or Adams and are explicitly rejected in the first Homily. Since there were only a handful of Jews in pre-Civil War England, I doubt that they are literally anti-Semitic (i.e., intended to arouse hatred towards real Jews); on the uses and dangers of this sort of figurative anti-Semitism, see Stephen Greenblatt, "Marlowe, Marx, and Anti-Semitism," in his Learning to Curse: Essays in Early Modern Culture (New York: Routledge, 1990), 40-41.

28. Hall, Works 5:45.

29. Calvin, Harmony 3:295.

30. Hall, Works 2:654.

31. Calvin, Harmony 3:257.

32. Calvin, Harmony 3:289.

33. Hall, Works 2:655.

34. Emile Mâle, Religious Art from the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Century , Bollingen 90 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 101-13.

35. Terence Cave, Devotional Poetry in France, c. 1570-1613 (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1969), 55.

36. Richard Strier, "Changing the Object: George Herbert and Excess," George Herbert Journal 2 (1978): 26.

37. Hall, Works 2:654, 661.

38. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 63.

39. Ibid., 59.

40. Walsall, The Life and Death , D2(v).

41. Ibid., D2(r); Hall, Works 2:662. See also Samuel Clark, The Blessed Life and Meritorious Death of our Lord & Saviour Jesus Christ (London, 1664), 51; Ailesbury, The Passion Sermon , 18-19; Hall, Works 5:37; Heinsius, The Mirrour , 59, 63.

42. Scarry, The Body in Pain , 53.

43. E.g., Calvin, Harmony 3:223, 288, 299; Hall, Works 5:34-35.

44. Clark, The Blessed Life , 54.

45. Calvin, Harmony 3:290; see also 3:259, 275, 282, 298; Jacob, A Treatise , 27; Hall, Works 5:47.

46. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 89.

47. Calvin, Harmony 3:304; also 3:276, 279, 291; cf. Bouwsma, Calvin , 184.

48. Ailesbury, The Passion Sermon , 29; Heinsius, The Mirrour , 62; see also Hall, Works 2:662, 5:35.

49. Erasmus, Disputatiuncula de taedio, pavore, tristitia Jesu, instante sup-plicio crucis (1503), in Opera omnia , ed. Joannes Clericus, 11 vols. (1703-1706; rpt. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1962), 5:1289-90.

50. On the tortured Christ as a beautiful youth, see John Heigham, The Life of our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus, Gathered out of ... Saint Bonaventure , 2d ed. (Douai, 1622), 572.

51. Jon. Augustinus Dietelmaier, Historia dogmatis de descensu Christi ad Inferos litteraria (Nürnberg, 1741), 160-91; Jacob, A Treatise .

52. Hall, Works 5:47; Heinsius, The Mirrour , 74-75. See also Calvin, Harmony 3:285; Institutes 2.16.6, 2.16.11.

53. Since the reader (or auditor) and author generally share the same textualized subject position—usually as members of a comprehensive "we"—I will henceforth refer to the implicit reader/author/auditor simply as "the reader."

54. So too in Greville's Caelica 99 , it is syntactically unclear whether the refrain's "deprived of human graces and divine" refers back to an implicit "I" or to the "saving Lord" of the subsequent line (in Five Courtier Poets of the English Renaissance , ed. Robert Bender [New York: Washington Square Press, 1967], 552-53); see also Bouwsma, Calvin , 92.

55. A similar rhetoric is at work in Shakespeare's Lucrece , where the delicately erotic portrayal of the heroine seems designed to titillate the (male) reader into a guilty half identification with the rapist, a complicity that does not cancel out ethical judgment but complicates it.

56. George K. Hunter makes a similar point about The Spanish Tragedy : "Kyd establishes a new relationship between tyrant and victim, presenting them as quasi-psychological polarities set up by a single mind rather than social polarities or religious opposites" ("Tyrant and Martyr: Religious Heroisms in Elizabethan Tragedy," in Poetic Traditions of the English Renaissance , ed. Maynard Mack and George deForest Lord [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982], 94).

57. On the pieta at the end of Lear , see C. L. Barber, "The Family in Shakespeare's Development: Tragedy and Sacredness," in Representing Shakespeare: New Psycoanalytic Essays , ed. Murray Schwartz and Coppélia Kahn (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 200.

58. On the loss of the "benign Holy Mother" in Protestantism, see Barber, "The Family," 196.

59. Stabat Mater , in The Oxford Book of Medieval Latin Verse , ed. F. J. E. Raby (Oxford: Clarendon, 1959), 436.

60. Calvin, Harmony 3:293.

61. Ailesbury, The Passion Sermon , 25.

62. Leo the Great, The Letters and Sermons , trans. Charles L. Feltoe,

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2d ser., 12 (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1979), 179.

63. Or, more correctly, the incarnate Christ is a divine person with both a divine and a human nature . In terms of orthodox Christology, then, Christ's human nature is not personal; he assumes our humanity, not his own. The last third of the Summa Theologica spells out the psychological implications of this unique compound with vermiculate precision.

64. Franks, The Work of Christ , 244.

65. Caroline Bynum, "The Body of Christ in the Later Middle Ages: A Reply to Leo Steinberg," Renaissance Quarterly 39 (1986): 399-439.

66. The essay would have been widely known, since later it was often published together with the Enchiridion . The best modern study of the Disputatiuncula can be found in John B. Gleason's John Colet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 94-125; see also J. H. Lupton's A Life of John Colet, D.D. , 2d ed. (London: George Bell, 1909), 100-109. All references to the Disputatiuncula will appear in the text.

67. "At tu [Colet] mihi in Christo Chimaeram quandam fabricaris, absolutissimarn caritatem, cum acerbissima reformidatione, velut aquam igni commiscens" (1279). For the Thomist elements in Erasmus's argument, see Franks, The Work of Christ , 216, 222.

68. Fulke Greville, Mustapha , in Poems and Dramas of Fulke Greville, First Lord Brooke , ed. Geoffrey Bullough, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1939), 2:136.

69. Henry Vaughan's "Jesus weeping [II]" seems to allude to Erasmus's argument here, first disagreeing with it, then assenting: "Should not thy sighs refrain thy store / Of tears, and not provoke to more? / Since two afflictions may not raign / In one at one time, as some feign / ... Dear Lord! thou art all grief and love, / But which thou are most, none can prove" (ll. 14-17, 22-23; in Major Poets of the Earlier Seventeenth Century , ed. Barbara Lewalski and Andrew Sabol [Indianapolis: Odyssey, 1973], 555).

70. Calvin, Harmony 3:230.

71. Ibid. 3:226; cf. 3:232-33; Institutes 2.16.11-12; Hall, Works 2:633-34; Jacob, A Treatise , 56.

72. Calvin, Harmony 3:318-19.

73. Calvin, Institutes 3.2.15-17; cf. Bouwsma, Calvin , 184-85.

74. Calvin, Institutes 3.2.18.

75. Ibid. 3.2.18

76. Calvin, Commentary upon the Epistle of Saint Paul to the Romans , trans. Christopher Rosdell (1583). ed. Henry Beveridge (Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1844), 181-90.

77. Montaigne, The Complete Essays , 2.1, p. 239. The Calvinist interpretation of Romans 7 sparked intense controversy during this period. Arminians (and anti-Calvinists generally) denied that the Pauline agon between flesh and

spirit applied to the regenerate precisely because they wished to affirm, contra Calvin, that grace does allow the elect to achieve a stable and unified selfhood.

78. Calvin, Harmony 3:233.

79. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 84. The same division of the self into flesh (Turk) and priest (Venetian) lurks behind Othello's presentation of his own suicide/sacrifice: ''in Aleppo once, / Where a malignant and a turban'd Turk / Beat a Venetian and traduc'd the state, / I took by the throat the circumcised dog, / And smote him thus" ( Othello , ed. Tucker Brooke and Lawrence Mason, The Yale Shakespeare [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947], 5.2.352-56).

80. Hall, Works 5:384-85.

81. Calvin, Harmony 3:202; Chamberlaine, The Passion of Christ , A6(r), B8(r), C2(r); see also Ailesbury, The Passion Sermon , 32; Heinsius, The Mirrour , 95.

82. John Owen, The Duty of Pastors and People Distinguished (London, 1644), 24. See also Donne's "The Crosse": "Then are you your own physicke, or need none, / When Still'd, or purg'd by tribulation. / For when that Crosse ungrudg'd, unto you stickes, / Then are you to your selfe, a Crucifixe" (in The Complete English Poems of John Donne , ed. by C. A. Patrides [London: Dent, 1985], ll. 29-32).

83. Michael Schoenfeldt, Prayer and Power: George Herbert and Renaissance Courtship (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 130.

84. Chamberlaine, The Passion of Christ , C2(r).

85. Quoted in Bouwsma, Calvin , 183. It is helpful to compare these evoca-tions of self-crucifixion to the more traditional imagery of contemporary Roman Catholic devotion; Lorenzo Scupoli's Spiritual Combat (1589) thus recommends that the reader "consider yourself as on the field of battle, facing the enemy and bound by the iron-clad law—ether fight or die. Imagine the enemy before you, that particular vice or disorderly passion that you are trying to conquer.... At the same time, picture at your right Jesus Christ, your Invincible Leader, accompanied by the Blessed Virgin, St. Joseph, whole companies of angels and saints.... At your left is Lucifer and his troops, ready to support the passion or vice you are fighting" (quoted in Martz, The Poetry of Meditation , 126). In such combat, aggression is directed against an alien intruder (vice, passion, Lucifer) rather than the self; the symbols represent the scene as a heroic combat rather than a form of torture; the conflict takes place in an "impersonal" arena, populated by objective, supernatural presences, rather than in the private, interior solitude of the chimerical self.

86. Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (New York: Atheneum, 1974), 24-25. See also W. Haller's remark that "the Puritan saga did not cherish the memory of Christ ... on the cross.... The mystic passion was the crucifixion of the new man by the old and the true propitiation the sacrifice of the old to the new" ( The Rise of Puritanism [New York: Columbia University Press, 1938], 151).

87. Hall, Works 5:36.

88. Calvin, Harmony 3:234, 319; cf. Hall, Works 2:634, 660; 5:36-38; Ailesbury, The Passion Sermon , 15-16; Heinsius, The Mirrour , 54.

89. See Lynda Boose's observation that "the father-son relationship is repeatedly mythologized as a potentially patricidal struggle for authority.... If the narrative includes a third person, it is a woman (usually the mother), who objectifies this mutual desire. Her presence, however, essentially only intensifies, and does not prevent or redraw, the collision-course formula" ("The Father's House and the Daughter in It: The Structures of Western Culture's Daughter-Father Relationship," in Daughters and Fathers , ed. Lynda Boose and Betty Flowers [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989], 32). On the father-son agon in Shakespeare, see Barber, "The Family," 189.

90. Heigham, The Life of our Blessed Lord ... Gathered out of ... Saint Bonaventure , 600-601.

91. Jacob, A Treatise , 80, 33; Calvin, Institutes 2.16.8-12, and Psychopannychia; Or, a Refutation of the Error that the Soul Sleeps in the Interval Between Death and the Judgment, in Tracts and Treatises in Defense of the Reformed Faith , trans. Henry Beveridge, ed. Thomas Torrance 3 vols. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1958), 3:480-81; Hall, Works 2:635.

92. Hall, Works 2:664.

93. Chamberlaine, The Passion of Christ , B3(v).

94. Hall, Works 5:391; cf. Calvin, Harmony 3:225-26.

95. Calvin, Harmony 3:304.

96. Ibid. 3:242, 269, 295, 307-8, 310, 321; Wilson, Christs Farewell , D5(r)-D6(v).

97. Hall, Works 5:42.

98. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 74.

99. Hall, Works 5:39-40, 2:664; Calvin, Harmony 3:318.

100. Jacob, A Treatise , 42.

101. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 75; Ailesbury, The Passion Sermon , 18.

102. Hall, Works 5:47; cf. Calvin, Harmony 3:296.

103. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 73, 75.

104. Hall, Works 5:25, 38; cf. Jacob, A Treatise , 45; Chamberlaine, The Passion of Christ , A4(v).

105. Heinsius, The Mirrour , 65.

106. See Gustav Aulén, Christus Victor. An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of the Atonement , trans. A. G. Herbert, intro. J. Pel-ikan (London: SPCK, 1970), 101-22.

107. Hall, Works 2:653.

108. George Sandys, The Poetical Works of George Sandys , 2 vols., ed. Richard Hooper (London, 1872), 2:409.

109. Hall, Works 5:42.

110. Wilson, Christs Farewell , C3(v)-C3(r). See also the comment by the

Puritan Christopher Love: "If preaching of Terrour be legal preaching, then the Law was more preacht in the new Testament that ever it was under the old.... the Gospell is more backt with terrour, and with the doctrines of hell and damnation, than ever the law was" (quoted in Delumeau, Sin and Fear , 502).

111. Calvin, Harmony 3:289; cf. Hall, Works 2:655; Heinsius, The Mirrour , 79.

112. Calvin, Harmony 3:293; cf. Wilson, Christs Farewell , B3(v), E5.

113. So, he continues, Christians should pray for their persecutors in the cheerful confidence that God will destroy them anyway ( Harmony 3:300-1).

114. Hall, Works 5:37; cf. Calvin, Harmony 3:328; Ailesbury, The Passion Sermon , 21.

115. Calvin, Harmony 3:288. Richard Helgerson's discussion of Foxe presents interesting parallels: "Misled by its reputation ... we expect the violence in Foxe's Book of Martyrs to go all one way. And certainly there is much to support that expectation. The persecutions and martyrdoms of those whom Foxe considers members of the true church of Christ are the book's most persistent subject. But God's punishment of persecutors makes a strong countertheme. Not every persecutor suffers, at least not in this world, but a great many do"—often in particularly grisly ways ( Forms of Nationhood , 255).

116. Peter Brown thus describes the ideal monk of fourth-century Egyptian asceticism as "a man who had gained a heart that was all of one piece, a heart as unriven by the knotted grain of private, unshared meanings and of private, covert intentions as was the solid, milk-white heart of the date-palm" ( The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity [New York: Columbia University Press, 1988], 227).

117. Bouwsma, Calvin , 179-80; cf. Bercovitch, Puritan Origins , 18-21.

118. Breton, "The Countesse of Penbrook's Passion," stanza 54; Thomas Nashe, Christs Teares over Jerusalem , in The Works of Thomas Nashe , ed. Ronald B. McKerrow and E. P. Wilson, 5 vols. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1958), 2:58; Shakespeare, King Lear , ed. Tucker Brooke and William Phelps, The Yale Shakespeare (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), 3.4.73. By contrast, Crashaw's "soft self-wounding Pelican! / Whose brest weepes Balm for wounded man" (ll. 45-46) emblematizes Christ's compassion and human suffering ("The Hymn of Sainte Thomas in Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament," in Major Poets of the Earlier Seventeenth Century , ed. Barbara Lewalski and Andrew Sabol [Indianapolis: Odyssey, 1973], 689).

119. Thomas Wilson, Arte of Rhetorique (1553), ed. Thomas J. Derrick, Renaissance Imagination 1 (New York: Garland, 1982), 87.

120. Walsall, The Life and Death , D2(r).

121. Calvin, Harmony 3:234; Institutes 2.16.12.

122. Shakespeare, Lear 5.3.40.

123. See Barber, " The Family ," 191.

124. Sir Philip Sidney, Astrophel and Stella 106, in Silver Poets of the Sixteenth Century , ed. Gerald Bullett (London: Dent, 1947).

125. Charles Nicholl, A Cup of News: The Life of Thomas Nashe (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), 166-67; Jonathan Crewe, Unredeemed Rhetoric: Thomas Nashe and the Scandal of Authorship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 59, 62.

126. Nashe, Christs Teares , 52. Further references to this work will be given in the text.

127. Shakespeare, Othello 5.2.5.

128. See Spenser's description of Lecherie in The Faerie Queene 1.4.24 ( The Complete Poetical Works of Edmund Spenser , ed. R. E. Neil Dodge [Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1908]).

129. Cf. Crewe, Unredeemed Rhetoric , 56-57.

130. Shakespeare, Othello 5.2.21-22. The parallels between Christs Teares and Othello , which Crewe also remarks ( Unredeemed Rhetoric , 56), may not be fortuitous. J. J. M. Tobin has shown that Shakespeare's major tragedies repeatedly echo Christs Teares ; see his "Nashe and Othello ," Notes and Queries 31 (1984): 202-3; "Macbeth and Christs Teares over Jerusalem," Aligarh Journal of English Studies 7 (1982): 72-78; and " Hamlet and Christ's Tears over Jerusalem," Aligarh Journal of English Studies 6 (1981): 158-67. Addition evidence for this parallel appears in Ailesbury's The Passion Sermon , which quotes Bernard of Clairvaux to the effect that the crucified Christ, "like his Spouse the Church, is blacke" (29).

131. Delumeau, Sin and Fear , 96.

132. Norbert Elias, Power and Civility , vol. 2 of The Civilizing Process , trans. Edmund Jephcott, 2 vols. (New York: Pantheon Books, Random House, 1982),230.

133. Delumeau, Sin and Fear , 298.

134. Richard C. McCoy, Sir Philip Sidney: Rebellion in Arcadia (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1979), 161.

135. Ibid., 207.

136. Similarly, in The Rites of Knighthood: The Literature and Politics of Elizabethan Chivalry , The New Historicism: Studies in Cultural Poetics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), Richard McCoy notes that Daniel's The Civil Wars "is supposed to be a simple tale of crime and punishment and redemption, but redemption is indefinitely deferred, and crime and punishment 'as in a circle' are endlessly repeated" (108).

137. Bouwsma, "Anxiety," 167-73. Cf. Hugh Trevor-Roper, Religion, the Reformation, and Social Change (London: Macmillan, 1967), 58-61.

138. I am looking only at English texts, but I suspect similar claims could be made about Continental Calvinist literature, for example, D'Aubigne's Tragiques and Vondel's Fall of Jerusalem .

139. A Larum for London (1602), ed. W. W. Gregg, Malone Society Reprints (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1913), ll. 74-84.

140. Thomas Deloney, Canaans Calamitie, Jerusalems Misery (1618), in The Works of Thomas Deloney , ed. Francis Oscar Mann (Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), 419-23.

141. A Larum , l. 90; Deloney, Canaans Calamitie , 419.

142. A Larum , ll. 8-10.

143. Ibid., ll. 86-88.

144. Ibid., ll. 833-34. The representation is strongly politically inflected; the good men in the play—Egmont and the English—are republican heroes, set in opposition to the barbaric, aristocratic men raping the civic lady; one is reminded of Shakespeare's Lucrece . The Protestant patriotism of the English and Dutch characters, like Brutus's Stoic republicanism, point toward a new civilizational order and new ideal of male responsibility.

145. Deloney, Canaans Calamitie , ll. 241, 247, 374, 377.