1. Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Libros y libreros en el siglo XVI (1914) (Mexico City: Archivo General de la Nación y Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1982); Francisco Rodríguez Marín, El "Quijote" y Don Quijote en América (Madrid: Librería Hernando, 1911); Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry: The Revival of the Romance of Chivalry in the Spanish Peninsula, and Its Extension and Influence Abroad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920); José Torre Revello, El libro, la imprenta y el periodismo en América durante la dominación española (Buenos Aires: Jacobo Peuser, 1940); Ida Rodríguez Prampolini, Amadises de América: la hazaña de Indias como empresa caballeresca (Mexico City: Junta Mexicana de Investigaciones Históricas, 1948); Dorothy Schons, Book Censorship in New Spain (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1950).

2. Maxime Chevalier, Lectura y lectores en la España de los siglos XVI y XVII (Madrid: Ediciones Turner, 1976); B. W. Ife, Reading and Fiction in Golden-Age Spain: A Platonist Critique and Some Picaresque Replies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Daniel Eisenberg, Romances of Chivalry in the Spanish Golden Age (Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta, 1982); Clive Griffin, The Crombergers of

Seville: The History of a Printing and Merchant Dynasty (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Luis Weckmann, La herencia medieval de México , 3 vols. (Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1984); Juan Gil, Mitos y utopías del descubrimiento , vol. 1: Colón y su tiempo ; vol. 2: El Pacífico ; vol. 3: El Dorado (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1989).

3. New studies on the exportation of books to colonial Spanish America and private libraries abound. See, for example, Carmen Arellano and Albert Meyers, "Testamento de Pedro Milachami, un curaca cañari en la región de los Wanka, Perú," Revista española de antropología americana 18 (1988): 95-127; Luis Jaime Cisneros and Pedro Guibovich Pérez, "Una biblioteca cuzqueña del siglo XVII," Histórica (Lima) 6 (1982): 141-171; Pedro Guibovich Pérez, "Libros para ser vendidos en el Virreinato del Perú a fines del siglo XVI,'' Boletín del Instituto Riva-Agüero (Lima) 13 (1984-1985): 85-114; idem, "Las lecturas de Francisco de Isásaga," Histórica (Lima) 10 (1986): 191-212; Teodoro Hampe Martínez, ''Los primeros libros en el Perú colonial," Fénix 28-29 (1983): 71-90; idem, "Presencia de un librero medinense en Lima (siglo XVI)," Revista histórica (Lima) 34 (1983-1984): 103-112; idem, "Lecturas de un jurista del siglo XVI: la biblioteca del doctor Gregorio González de Cuenca, presidente de la audiencia de Santo Domingo," Anuario de estudios americanos 41 (1984): 143-193; idem, "Libros profanos y sagrados en la biblioteca del tesorero Antonio Dávalos," Revista de Indias 178 (July-December 1986): 385-402; idem, "La biblioteca del virrey don Martín Enríquez: aficiones intelectuales de un gobernante colonial," Historia mexicana 142 (October-December 1986): 251-271; idem, "Lecturas de un jurista del siglo XVI: la biblioteca del licenciado Juan Bautista de Monzón, fiscal y oidor de Lima," Atenea 455 (1987): 237-251; idem, "La difusión de libros e ideas en el Perú colonial: análisis de bibliotecas particulares (siglo XVI)," Bulletin hispanique 89 (1987): 55-84; idem, "La biblioteca del arzobispo Hernando Arias de Ugarte: bagaje intelectual de un prelado criollo," Thesaurus 42 (1987): 337-361; idem, "Una biblioteca cuzqueña confiscada por la Inquisición," Anuario de estudios americanos 45 (1988): 273-315; Teodoro Hampe Martínez and Carlos A. González Sánchez, "La biblioteca de un pícaro indiano del siglo XVI: el cura Alonso de Torres Maldonado," Investigaciones y ensayos 36 (July-December 1987): 483-496; Helga Kropfinger von Kügelgen, "Exportación de libros europeos de Sevilla a la Nueva España en el año de 1586," in Libros europeos en la Nueva España a fines del siglo XVI , Das Mexiko-Projekt der Deutschen Forschungs-

gemeinschaft, vol. 5 (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1973); Guillermo Lohmann Villena, "Los libros españoles en Indias," Arbor (Madrid) 2, no. 6 (1944): 221-249; idem, "Libros, libreros y bibliotecas en la época virreinal," Fénix 21 (1971): 17-24; Agustín Millares Carlo, "Bibliotecas y difusión del libro en Hispanoamérica colonial: intento bibliográfico," Boletín histórico (Caracas) 22 (January 1970): 25-72; Aurelio Miró Quesada, ''Fray Luis de Granada en el Perù," Revistade la Universidad Católica (Lima) 11-12 (1982): 13-20; Stephen Mohler, "Publishing in Colonial Spanish America,'' Inter-American Review of Bibliograpby 28, no. 3 (1978): 2591-271; Ignacio Osorio Romero, Historia de las bibliotecas novobispanas (Mexico City: SEP, Dirección General de Bibliotecas, 1986); Francisco de Solano, "Fuentes para la historia cultural: libros y bibliotecas de la América colonial," in Ensayos de metodología histórica en el campo americanista (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Centro de Estudios Históricos, 1985); and Guillermo Tovar de Teresa, La ciudad de México y la utopía en el siglo XVI (Mexico City: Espejo de Obsidiana, 1987). See also the fine catalog of the 1987 exhibition "Books in the Americas" at the John Carter Brown Library, Providence, Rhode Island (Julie Greer Johnson, The Book in the Americas: The Role of Books and Printing in the Development of Culture and Society in Colonial Latin America—Catalog of an Exhibition [Providence, R.I.: John Carter Brown Library, 1988]).

A notable recent contribution is Hampe Martínez's inventory and study of one of the most remarkable private libraries of colonial Spanish America, the three-thousand-volume collection of the mestizo priest of San Damián de Huarochirí, Peru, Francisco de Ávila, who is known both for his campaigns to extirpate idolatry and for his compilation of a major collection of information on Andean religion; see also Frank Salomon and George L. Urioste, The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991).

4. For instance, Carlos Alberto González Sánchez's recent work on books exported to America ("El libro y la carrera de Indias: 'Registro de ida de navíos,'" Archivo bispalense: revista histórica, literaria y artística [Seville] 72, no. 220 [1989]: 93-103) reaffirms the proportion of religious (75 percent) to secular (25 percent) works cited by Leonard nearly sixty years ago; see Leonard's Romances of Chivalry in the Spanish Indies: With Some Registros of Shipments of Books to the Spanish Colonies , University of California Publications in Modern Philology, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 217-372 (Berkeley: Uni-

versity of California Press, 1933), p. 230; and Books of the Brave , p. 105.

5. Charles Gibson made this break-through for colonial historical studies in Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952). For the culture of the conquistadores, see José Durand, La transformación social del conquistador , México y lo mexicano, 15-16 (Mexico City: Porrúa y Obregón, 1953); Mario Góngora, Los grupos de conquistadores en Tierra Firme (1509-1530) (Santiago: Centro de Historia Colonial, Universidad de Chile, 1962). For studies that reveal the complexity of cultural interactions and identities in early Spanish America, see George M. Foster, Culture and Conquest: America's Spanish Heritage , Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, no. 27 (New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1960); and, more recently, Serge Gruzinski, La colonisation de l'imaginaire: sociétés indigènes et occidentalisation dans le Mexique espagnol XVIe-XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1988); and Angel Rama, La ciudad letrada , introduction by Mario Vargas Llosa, prologue by Hugo Achugar (Hanover, N.H.: Ediciones del Norte, 1984).

6. Lewis Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949); R. B. Cunningham Graham, The Horses of the Conquest (1930), edited by Robert Moorman Denhardt (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1949). For the juxtaposition of these works with Leonard's in published reviews, see, for example, Don Guzmán, "Spaniards in America Described," Los Angeles Times , July 26, 1949; Max L. Moorhead, "Spanish Way Not All Roses," Oklahoman (Oklahoma City), July 31, 1949; and D. W. Maurer, ''Books the Caballeros Read, and Horses They Rode," Courier-Journal (Louisville, Ky.), January 8, 1950.

7. Thus Benjamin Keen ("The White Legend Revisited: A Reply to Professor Hanke's 'Modest Proposal,'" Hispanic American Historical Review 51, no. 2 [1971]: 336-355) assesses the Steins' work. See Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, The Colonial Heritage of Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); Charles Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico , 1519-1810 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964). The continuity, rather than rupture, between these intellectual formulations and those of Leonard's generation is marked by Charles Gibson's having named his chaired professorship at the University of Michigan in honor of Irving A. Leonard;

see John J. TePaske, "An Interview with Irving A. Leonard," Hispanic American Historical Review 63, no. 2 (1983): 233-253.

8. John V. Murra, La organización economica del estado Inca , translated by Daniel R. Wagner (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1978); idem, The Economic Organization of the Inca State , Research in Economic Anthropology suppl. 1 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1979).

9. Ángel María Garibay K., Historia de literatura nahuatl , vol. 1: Etapa autónoma: de c. 1430 a 1521 ; vol. 2: El trauma de la conquista (1521-1750) (1953-1954), 2d ed. (Mexico City, Porrúa, 1971); Miguel León-Portilla, ed., The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (1959), introduction by Miguel León-Portilla, translated from Nahuatl into Spanish by Angel María Garibay K., translated into English by Lysander Kemp (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); Edmundo Guillén Guillén, Versión Inca de la conquista (Lima: Milla Batres, 1974).

10. TePaske, "Interview," p. 248.

11. Thanks to Andrew M. Shapiro for the citations of Prescott used here; all page numbers in the following discussion refer to Prescott's History of the Conquest of Mexico , 3 vols., edited by John Foster Kirk (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1873). For Prescott's reading of Cortés's history, see Stephanie Merrim, "Civilización y barbarie: Prescott como lector de Cortés," in La historia en la literatura iheroamericana , edited by Raquel Chang-Rodríguez and Gabriella de Beer (New York and Hanover, N.H.: City College of the City University of New York and Ediciones del Norte, 1989), pp. 87-96.

12. By the same token, he describes sixteenth-century religion with such terms as "True Faith," "false faith," "hostile religion," and "heretics" ( Books of the Brave , pp. 6, 146, 316; also 119, 141, 313-314).

13. Leonard, Books of the Brave , p. 149. On Amerindian population decline as a consequence of the European invasion, see Sherburne F. Cook and Woodrow Borah, Essays on Population History: Mexico and the Caribbean , vol. 1 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971); David Henige, "On the Contact Population of Hispaniola: History as Higher Mathematics," Hispanic American Historical Review 58, no. 2 (1978): 217-237; R. A. Zanibardino, "Critique of David Henige's 'On the Contact Population of Hispaniola: History as Higher Mathematics," Hispanic American Historical Review 58, no. 4 (1978): 700-708; Noble David Cook,

Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620 , Cambridge Latin American Studies, 41 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Nicolás Sánchez Albornoz ("La población de las Indias en Las Casas y en la historia," in En el quinto centenario de Bartolomé de las Casas , edited by Luis Yáñez-Barnuevo [Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, 1986], pp. 85-92) summarizes the demographic debates and their implications.

14. Benjamin Keen, "The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and Realities," Hispanic American Historical Review 49, no. 4 (1969): 706. See Julián Juderías, La leyenda negra: estudios acerca del concepto de España en el extranjero (1914), 13th ed. (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1954).

15. In chapters 7 and 20 of Books of the Brave (pp. 78-80, 323), Leonard sets forth the claims about Spanish obscurantism which his book refutes.

16. Pedro Guibovich Pérez ("Libros para ser vendidos") has recently retranscribed and provided a new study of a bill of sale and its accompanying list of books, dated September 2, 1591, which Leonard ("On the Lima Book Trade, 1591," Hispanic American Historical Review 33, no. 4 [1953]: 511-525) had published in 1953 on the basis of the original document in the Archivo Nacional del Perú. (Leonard published the article as chapter 16 of Los libros del conquistador [translated by Mario Monteforte Toledo, revised by Julián Calvo. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1953], but he did not reproduce the document itself. For that reason, Guibovich's new, corrected transcription is of particular interest.) Still more recently, in 1989, Carlos Alberto González Sánchez ("El libro y la carrera") called attention to the importance of ships' registers of book shipments—the type of documents Leonard first published in 1933—as a primary source. Acknowledging the importance of Leonard's work, González Sánchez has examined some of the registers of the two fleets of 1605, which Rodríguez Marín and Leonard had studied earlier to learn about the shipment of the first edition of Don Quixote to the Indies (see "Documenting the Book Trade," below).

17. Leonard ( Romances of Chivalry , pp. 219-233) summarizes this legislation, as had Rodríguez Marín ( El "Quijote," pp. 15-19) before him. The decrees are reproduced in Torre Revello, El libro , pp. iii-vi.

18. See Romances of Chivalry , p. 241. Since then Torre Revello ( El libro ,

p. 47) in 1940, and Millares Carlo ("Bibliotecas," pp. 25-26) and Lohmann Villena ("Libros," p. 20) in the 1970s, have reiterated the same conclusion.

19. A new edition of Quiroga's indices of prohibited and expurgated books, the Index de l'Inquisition espagnole, 1583, 1584 , is in preparation by the Centre d'Etudes de la Renaissance, Université de Sherbrooke, Québec, under the direction of J. M. de Bujanda, as volume 11 in the Collection Index des livres interdits .

20. See Antonio Márquez, Literatura e inquisición en España (1478-1834) (Madrid: Taurus, 1980).

21. See Esteban Torre's introduction to Juan Huarte de San Juan, Examen de ingenios para las ciencias (1575), edited by Esteban Torre (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1976), pp. 42-44.

22. Nevertheless, it is useful to keep in mind that Philip II used the Inquisition for secular as well as ecclesiastical politics. Scholarship of recent decades on the Spanish Inquisition confirms the assessment made a century ago by Henry Charles Lea: "The matters liable to condemnation were by no means confined to heresy, but covered a wide region of morals and of ecclesiastical and secular politics, for the Inquisition was too useful an instrument of statecraft not to be effectively employed in maintaining monarchical as well as clerical absolutism ( Chapters from the Religious History of Spain [Philadelphia: Lea Brothers, 1890], p. 74). For recent perspectives on the Spanish Inquisition that investigate its practices according to broad ideological and cultural objectives, see Joaquín Pérez Villanueva and Bartolomé Escandell Bonet, eds., Historia de la Inquisición en España y América, T.I. (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Inquisitoriales, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1984); Joaquín Pérez Villanueva, ed., La Inquisición española: nueva visión, nuevos horizontes (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1980) and Virgilio Pinto Crespo, Inquisición y control ideológico en la España del siglo XVI , prologue by Joaquín Pérez Villanueva (Madrid: Taurus, 1983).

23. Documents 1 and 2 are analyzed in chapter 13; document 3 in chapter 14; document 4 in chapter 15; document 5 in chapter 16; document 6 in chapter 17; document 7 in chapter 18; documents 8 and 9 in chapter 19.

24. On this point, Leonard's personal experience is pertinent. He observes that he grew up with a concept of history as narrative, and his intellectual predilection for "history and literature as forming one study" was no doubt inspired by his early acquaintance with a Civil War veteran. Leonard recalled that as a young boy,

he studied Civil War history so thoroughly that he knew details that the old eyewitness soldier did not know about the Battle of Gettysburg (see TePaske "Interview," pp. 235, 249).

25. See ibid., pp. 241, 245.

24. On this point, Leonard's personal experience is pertinent. He observes that he grew up with a concept of history as narrative, and his intellectual predilection for "history and literature as forming one study" was no doubt inspired by his early acquaintance with a Civil War veteran. Leonard recalled that as a young boy,

he studied Civil War history so thoroughly that he knew details that the old eyewitness soldier did not know about the Battle of Gettysburg (see TePaske "Interview," pp. 235, 249).

25. See ibid., pp. 241, 245.

26. Francisco Rodríguez Marín, El "Quijote" ; Irving Leonard, " Don Quixote and the Book Trade in Lima, 1606," Hispanic Review 8 (1940): 285-304.

27. Leonard (" Don Quixote ," p. 286) acknowledges the aid of Guillermo Lohmann Villena in locating this document.

28. Mateo Alemán, Guzmán de Alfarache (1599), in La novela picaresca española , edited by Angel Valbuena y Prat, (Madrid: Aguilar, 1978), pp. 233-702.

29. González Sanchéz, "El libro," p. 102.

30. Leonard ( Books of the Brave , p. 96) recalled the monopoly on the book trade with New Spain that Charles V granted to Jacobo Cromberger. See Griffin, The Crombergers , pp. 93-94, for a study of this arrangement; Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Bibliografía mexicana del siglo XVI (1886), edited by Agustín Millares Carlo (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1954) pp. 45-46, had earlier published the decree.

31. Griffin ( The Crombergers , pp. 152-153, 163) underscores the conservative character of the print industry by noting that the Crombergers rarely risked first editions; over 36 percent of their editions, in fact, were reprints of books they had already issued. See also Guillermo Aulet Sastre, "Precios autorizados de libros españoles en Indias," Revista de Indias 24 (April-June 1946): 311-312, on authorized prices.

32. In 1920, Sir Henry Thomas ( Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry , p. 82) had cited the passages of Bernal Díaz del Castillo and the Sergas de Esplandián that Leonard would later examine in Books of the Brave (chapter 4). Lohmann Villena ("Libros," p. 233) and Leonard ( Books of the Brave , pp. 42, 344) note that Ricardo Rojas ( Historia de la literatura argentina , 2d ed. [Buenos Aires, 1924-1925]) had put forth the idea in the 1920s.

In Amadises de América , pp. 69, 153, Ida Rodríguez Prampolini cited the passages of Bernal Díaz (which Leonard simultaneously considered in his 1949 publication) to support the view that there was a profound relationship between the Spanish love of chivalric adventure and the "empresa de las Indias." Instead of explaining the conquistadores' psychology on the basis of popular reading, Rodríguez Prampolini included the novels of chivalry as a body

of evidence to support her thesis that the Spanish conquest of America was a deed inspired by a "chivalric sense of life," which was responsible in great measure for the conduct of conquistadores, missionaries, and the crown.

33. Leonard ( Books of the Brave , pp. 25, 31, 53, 65) has repeatedly acknowledged that this idea is as indemonstrable as it is appealing.

34. Although Leonard (ibid., p. 40) mentions Columbus's journal as the source for Montalvo's Amazonian episodes, the latter would likely have had access instead only to the "letter of discovery" in one of its printed editions of 1493 or after (see Christopher Columbus, The Letter of Columbus on the Discovery of America: A Facsimile of the Pictorial Edition, with a New and Literal Translation, and a Complete Reprint of the Oldest Four Editions in Latin [New York: Lenox Library, 1892], p. 10). Thanks to Eyda M. Merediz for raising this question. On Columbus's reading of Marco Polo, see Leonardo Olschki, "Ponce de León's Fountain of Youth: History of a Geographic Myth," Hispanic American Historical Review 21, no. 3 (1941): 382.

Leonard's work on myths of Spain's America joins that of Enrique de Gandía, Historia crítica de los mitos y leyendas de la conquista americana , edited by Manuel Rodríguez Carrasco (Buenos Aires: Centro Difusor del Libro, 1944), pp. 75-107. Recalling Leonard's work, Jean-Paul Duviols ("Los indios, protagonistas de los mitos europeos," in La imagen del indio en la Europa moderna [Sevilla: Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1990], pp. 377-388) has recently surveyed the accounts of Amazons and giants in the chronicles from Columbus and Vespucci to Lafitau. See Juan Gil's recent, magisterial three-volume study Mitos y utopías del descubrimiento , which comprehensively explores the mythical heritage of the New World discoveries.

33. Leonard ( Books of the Brave , pp. 25, 31, 53, 65) has repeatedly acknowledged that this idea is as indemonstrable as it is appealing.

34. Although Leonard (ibid., p. 40) mentions Columbus's journal as the source for Montalvo's Amazonian episodes, the latter would likely have had access instead only to the "letter of discovery" in one of its printed editions of 1493 or after (see Christopher Columbus, The Letter of Columbus on the Discovery of America: A Facsimile of the Pictorial Edition, with a New and Literal Translation, and a Complete Reprint of the Oldest Four Editions in Latin [New York: Lenox Library, 1892], p. 10). Thanks to Eyda M. Merediz for raising this question. On Columbus's reading of Marco Polo, see Leonardo Olschki, "Ponce de León's Fountain of Youth: History of a Geographic Myth," Hispanic American Historical Review 21, no. 3 (1941): 382.

Leonard's work on myths of Spain's America joins that of Enrique de Gandía, Historia crítica de los mitos y leyendas de la conquista americana , edited by Manuel Rodríguez Carrasco (Buenos Aires: Centro Difusor del Libro, 1944), pp. 75-107. Recalling Leonard's work, Jean-Paul Duviols ("Los indios, protagonistas de los mitos europeos," in La imagen del indio en la Europa moderna [Sevilla: Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1990], pp. 377-388) has recently surveyed the accounts of Amazons and giants in the chronicles from Columbus and Vespucci to Lafitau. See Juan Gil's recent, magisterial three-volume study Mitos y utopías del descubrimiento , which comprehensively explores the mythical heritage of the New World discoveries.

35. A vogue documented by Leonard in Romances of Chivalry , pp. 231-240.

36. Griffin, The Crombergers , pp. 6-7; Chevalier, Lectura y lectores , p. 71.

37. Eisenberg, Romances , pp. 89-118; Chevalier, Lecturas y lectores , pp. 65-103.

38. Griffin, The Crombergers , p. 153.

39. Ife, Reading and Fiction , p. 23.

40. Leonard provides numerous literary references, most of which had been presented by Thomas in his discussion of the prevalence

and decline of the new romances in the Spanish peninsula ( Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry , pp. 147-179).

41. If we take as evidence the expression of chivalric values as they were defined, for example, by Raimundo Lulio, Alfonso el Sabio or Don Juan Manuel, and examine how these notions are incorporated into the chronicles of conquering soldiers, a clear view of the significance of the chivalric model is likely to emerge. See Luis Alberto de Cuenca's anthology of the relevant works, Floresta española de varia caballería: Raimundo Lulio, Alfonso X, don Juan Manuel , prologue by Carlos García Gual (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1975).

42. The following discussion reiterates that of my "Literary Production and Suppression: Reading and Writing About Amerindians in Colonial Spanish America," Dispositio: revista hispánica de semiótica literaria 11, nos. 28-29 (1986): 1-25.

43. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (1517-1521) , edited by Genaro García, translated by A. P. Maudslay, introduction by Irving A. Leonard (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1981), pp. 190-191.

44. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España (1568), edited by Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1982), pp. 175-176 (chap. 87).

45. Ibid., pp. 384 (chap. 151), 399 (chap. 153). Rodríguez Prampolini ( Amadises , p. 69) drew attention to the first of these passages.

44. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España (1568), edited by Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1982), pp. 175-176 (chap. 87).

45. Ibid., pp. 384 (chap. 151), 399 (chap. 153). Rodríguez Prampolini ( Amadises , p. 69) drew attention to the first of these passages.

46. Pedro de Castañeda Nájera, "Castañeda's History of the Expedition" (1560?), in Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 1540-42 , edited by George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey, vol. 2, Coronado Cuarto Centennial Publications, 1540-1940 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), p. 276. I would like to point out that Castañeda's reference to the tale of Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers of France is one that Leonard inadvertently omitted from Books of the Brave (Leonard, letter to the author, December 4, 1990).

47. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Historia general y natural de las Indias , edited by José Amador de los Ríos, 4 vols. (Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia, 1851-1855), vol. 1, p. 179: "pues no cuento los disparates de los libros de Amadís ni los que dellos dependen" (my translation).

48. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Libro del muy esforçado e invencible cavallero ... don Claribalte (Valencia, 1519).

49. Díaz del Castillo, Discovery and Conquest , p. 191.

50. Here we leave open the issue of the specific social groups that are implied; see Griffin, The Crombergers .

51. See, in particular, the studies of Guibovich Pérez and Hampe Martínez (cited in note 3 above).

52. Francisco López de Gómara ( Historia general de las Indias y vida de Hernán Cortés [1552], prologue and chronology by Jorge Gurria Lacroix [Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1979], p. 8) made his famous statement that the conquest of the Indians began just as that of the Moors was concluded, and that Spain's destiny was to fight against infidels, in the dedication of his Historia to Charles V.

53. Nathan Wachtel's Vision of the Vanquished: The Spanish Conquest of Peru Through Indian Eyes, 1530-1570 (1971), translated by Ben Reynolds and Siân Reynolds (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), remains a landmark work in this area.

54. The Reconquest of Spain was universally recognized as a just war, even by Las Casas, who, however, insisted that the conquests in America were illegal ("Memorial-sumario a Felipe II" [1560] and "Tratado de las doce dudas" [1564], both in Obras escogidas de Fray Bartolomé de las Casas , vol. 5, edited by Juan Pérez de Tudela Bueso, Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, 110 [Madrid: Atlas, 1958]; see pp. 459 and 496-498, respectively).

55. The royal decree of September 2, 1556, is published in Torre Revello, El libro , pp. xii-xiii.

56. See ibid., pp. x, xxiii.

55. The royal decree of September 2, 1556, is published in Torre Revello, El libro , pp. xii-xiii.

56. See ibid., pp. x, xxiii.

57. Mario Vargas Llosa ("The Culture of Freedom" [Lewin Lectures in the Humanities, Washington University, St. Louis, 1986], p. 10) may be mentioned among those who continue to maintain that censorship thoroughly suppressed creative endeavor in America in Spanish colonial times, and that literary writing was characterized by "formal extravagances and an art thoroughly predictable, conformist, and devoid of spontaneity and genius." In his essays ("Latin America: Fiction and Reality," in Modern Latin American Fiction: A Survey , edited by John King [London: Faber and Faber, 1987], pp. 1-17; "Latin American Fiction and Reality," Times Literary Supplement , January 30, 1987, pp. 110-111; ''Questions of Conquest: What Columbus Wrought, and What He Did Not," Harper's , December 1990, pp. 45-53) and public lectures (''Culture of Freedom"), he has also taken the view that light reading was all but impossible. Despite his acknowledgment that the first edition of Don Quixote de la Mancha went to the Indies, he then ("Latin America," p. 4) ignores that fact upon declaring that

Inquisitorial censorship was so effective that reading a novel in colonial Spanish America became "a sinful adventure in which, in order to abandon yourself to an imaginary world, you had to be prepared to face prison and humiliation."

58. Mariano Picón-Salas, A Cultural History of Spanish America: From Conquest to Independence , translated by Irving A. Leonard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), p. 83. In 1949, Leonard ( Books of the Brave , p. 323) registered his disagreement with this assessment, citing this very passage of Picón-Salas as typical of those that wrongly denied the existence of creativity in Inquisitorial times.

59. Cedomil Goic ("La novela hispanoamericana colonial," in Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana , vol. 1: Época colonial , edited by Luis Íñigo Madrigal [Madrid: Cátedra, 1982], pp. 369-406) demonstrates it; Vargas Llosa ("Latin America Fiction," p. 110) proclaims it, despite his assertions to the contrary, when he speaks of a colonial ''world into which fiction had spread, contaminating practically everything.''

60. See Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain—Introductions and Indices , preface by Miguel León-Portilla, Monographs of the School of American Research, 14, pt. 1 (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research and University of Utah, 1982), pp. 35-37.

61. Bartolomé de las Casas, Apologética historia sumaria 1527-1560 , 2 vols., edited by Edmundo O'Gorman (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma, 1967); Jerónimo Román, Repúblicas del mundo (Medina del Campo: F. del Canto, 1575); idem, Repúblicas del mundo ... corregida y censurada por el expurgatorio del Santo Oficio (Salamanca: Juan Fernández, 1595). See Henry R. Wagner and Helen Rand Parish, The Life and Writings of Bartolomé de las Casas (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1967), pp. 287-289; and my "Censorship and Its Evasion: Jerónimo Román and Bartolomé de las Casas," Hispania 75, no. 5 (1992): 846-861.

62. For theoretical contributions to the reconceptualization of colonial literary studies, see Roberto González Echevarría, "El concepto de cultura y la idea de literatura en Hispanoamérica," in Perspectivas sobre la literatura latinoamericana , edited by Guillermo Sucre (Caracas: Editorial de la Universidad Simón Bolívar, 1980), pp. 5-40; Walter D. Mignolo, "La lengua, la letra, el territorio (o la crisis de los estudios literarios coloniales)," Dispositio: revista hispánica de semiótica literaria 11, nos. 28-29 (1986): 137-160; idem, "Anáhuac

y sus otros: la cuestión de la letra en el Nuevo Mundo," Revista de crítica literaria latinoamericana 14 no. 28 (1988): 29-53; Rolena Adorno, "New Perspectives in Colonial Spanish American Literary Studies," Journal of the Southwest 32, no. 2 (1990): 173-191; idem, "La construcción cultural de la alteridad: el sujeto colonial y el discurso caballeresco,'' in Primer Simposio de Filología Iberoamericana , Facultad de Filología, Universidad de Sevilla, prologue by Antonio Sancho Royo (Zaragoza: Libros Portico, 1990), pp. 153-170.

63. In each case, Leonard gave new significance to data already gathered. In 1920, Thomas ( Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry , p. 82), had cited the passage in which Bernal Díaz recalled the view of Tenochtitlán as worthy of a scene from Amadís de Gaula and suggested that "the deeds of the heroes of chivalry may have inspired the handful of veterans under Cortés." In 1911, Rodríguez Marín discussed and published as a documentary appendix to his El "Quijote" (pp. 97-118) the "Relación de las fiestas que se celebraron en la corte de Paussa por la nueba del prouiymiento de Virrey en la perssona del marqués de montes claros....''

64. Rodríguez Marín, El " Quijote ," pp. 107-109.