1. Federico Arana, Guaraches de ante azul: Historia del rock mexicano (Mexico City: Posada, 1985), vol. 2, 135-36.

2. From the liner notes of "The Rolling Stones: 'Píntalo de Negro' " (Peerless, 1966). Translation from Spanish.

3. José Agustín, La nueva música clásica (Mexico City: Cuadernos de la Juventud, 1968), 67-68.

4. Armando Nava, interview with the author, Mexico City, 5 June 1993.

5. Announcing that the new subsidiary would act "as a launching pad for the company's expansion throughout Latin America," just over a year later Capitol had captured 20 percent of the Mexican market through its distribution of the Beatles, the Animals, the Dave Clark Five, and other well-known British bands. Emilio Azcárraga Milmo was a co-owner of the Capitol subsidiary. See "Cap Spinning into Latino Market via New Mex Diskery," Variety , 12 May 1965, 187; Claudia Fernández and Andrew Paxman, "El Tigre" (unpublished manuscript).

6. Nava, interview.

7. Claudio Lomnitz refers to this phenomenon as "staggered distribution" in his essay, "Fissures in Contemporary Mexican Nationalism," Public Culture 9 (1996): 55-68.

8. Joaquín ("Chas") López, interview with the author, Mexico City, 7 April 1993.

9. Enrique Partida, interview with the author, Mexico City, 7 June 1993.

10. Armando Blanco, interview with the author, Mexico City, 11 March 1993.

11. For a theoretical discussion see Mark Poster, The Mode of Information: Poststructuralism and Social Context (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 9-10.

12. Jaime Pontones, interview with the author, Mexico City, 15 August 1991.

13. Manuel Ruiz, interview with the author, Mexico City, 6 August 1991.

14. Eréndira Rincón, interview with the author, Mexico City, 20 August 1996.

15. Iván Zatz-Díaz, interview with the author, New York City, 13 October 1992.

16. Ruiz, interview.

17. Johnny Laboriel, interview with the author, Mexico City, 11 August 1996.

18. Ruiz, interview.

19. Arana ( Guaraches , vol. 2, 273) suggests that cabaret owners actually opposed the cafés cantantes because they drew away customers, though it seems to me that the clientele, if indeed they overlapped at times, still saw the cabarets and the cafés as distinct types of venues, especially since the latter were prohibited from selling alcohol.

20. Alberto Domingo, "Cafés a go-go," quoted in Arana, Guaraches , vol. 4, 92.

21. "Para vigilar los 'cafés cantantes' no hay suficientes inspectores," Las Ultimas Noticias de Excélsior , 3 February 1965, 10.

22. Sergio González Rodríguez, Los bajos fondos: El antro, la bohemia y el café (Mexico City: Cal y Arena, 1990), 97. Uruchurtu was mayor of the Federal

District from 1952 to 1966, during which time he earned a reputation for often repressive policies aimed at cleaning up the city's image, especially its nightlife.

23. See Federico Arana, "Pasión, muerte y milagrosa resurrección de los cafés cantanes," in Carlos Chimal, ed., Crines: Lecturas de rock (Mexico City: Penélope, 1984), 45-53. The essay is reproduced in Arana, Guaraches , vol. 2.

24. "Redada y clausuras en más de veinte cafés existencialistas," El Universal Gráfico , 1 February 1965, 29.

25. Quoted in Arana, Guaraches , vol. 2, 256.

26. Ibid.

25. Quoted in Arana, Guaraches , vol. 2, 256.

26. Ibid.

27. "Son un peligro para la sociedad los llamados 'cafés existencialistas,'" El Universal Gráfico , 6 February 1965, 6.

28. Ramón Gregorio Lara y Chavarría, "Cafés 'existencialistas,'" El Universal Gráfico , 10 February 1965, 7.

29. Ruiz, interview.

30. Alma Luzuriaga, "Derechos de la adolescencia," Jueves de Excélsior , 27 February 1964, "Jueves Femenino" suppl.,., n.p.

31. Jueves de Excélsior , 12 March 1964.

32. Enrique Alvarez Palacios, "Dioses de barro," Jueves de Excélsior , 1 July 1965, 14-15.

33. " 'Ay Ay Ay' Giving Way to 'Yeah, Yeah, Yeah' on Mexico's Rockin' Video," Variety , 10 November 1965, 1.

34. From the liner notes of "Los Yaki: 'El sonido agresivo de Los Yaki" (Capitol, 1966).

35. "Los desenfrenados: 5 muchachos que hacen ruido," México Canta , 15 October 1965, 42-43.

36. "Reportaje gráfico con LOS SPARKS ," Idolos del Rock (December 1966), 32-35.

37. "Los Apson: 5 muchachos triunfadores," México Canta , 15 October 1965, 48-49.

38. Ibid. Malinchismo conveys a notion of cultural treason, of preferring what is foreign to what is native. The term alludes to Doña Marina, Hernán Cortés's aboriginal mistress and translator who abetted his conquest of the Aztecs. When "Mexico became an independent nation and the problem of national identity surfaced ... Doña Marina, transformed into La Malinche, came to symbolize the humiliation—the rape—of the indigenous people and the act of treachery that would lead to their oppression" (Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico [(New York: Columbia University Press, 1989], 131). Pulque is an indigenous alcoholic beverage made from the maguey plant.

37. "Los Apson: 5 muchachos triunfadores," México Canta , 15 October 1965, 48-49.

38. Ibid. Malinchismo conveys a notion of cultural treason, of preferring what is foreign to what is native. The term alludes to Doña Marina, Hernán Cortés's aboriginal mistress and translator who abetted his conquest of the Aztecs. When "Mexico became an independent nation and the problem of national identity surfaced ... Doña Marina, transformed into La Malinche, came to symbolize the humiliation—the rape—of the indigenous people and the act of treachery that would lead to their oppression" (Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico [(New York: Columbia University Press, 1989], 131). Pulque is an indigenous alcoholic beverage made from the maguey plant.

39. Juventino Flores H.,., "Los Locos del Ritmo," México Canta , 15 October 1965, 6-10.

40. Jueves de Excélsior , 3 June 1965.

41. José Agustín, La contracultura en México: La historia y el significado de los rebeldes sin causa, los jipitecas, los punks y las bandas (Mexico City: Grijalbo, 1996), 21.

42. Rincón, interview.

43. Ruiz, interview.

44. Rincón, interview.

45. Josefina A. de Gutiérrez, "De las posadas de antaño a las posadas a go go," Jueves de Excélsior , 15 December 1966, 18-19. See also chapter 2.

46. Ibid.

45. Josefina A. de Gutiérrez, "De las posadas de antaño a las posadas a go go," Jueves de Excélsior , 15 December 1966, 18-19. See also chapter 2.

46. Ibid.

47. Jueves de Excélsior , 22 September 1966.

48. See Helen Delpar, The Enormous Vogue of Things Mexican: Cultural Relations between the United States and Mexico, 1920-1935 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992). For references to beatnik travels to Mexico see Jack Kerouac, On the Road (New York: Signet, 1980; Viking Press, 1957); Carolyn Cassady, Off the Road: My Years with Cassady, Kerouac, and Ginsberg (New York: W. Morrow, 1990); D. Wayne Gunn, Escritores norteamericanos y británicos en México , trans. Ernestina de Champourcin (Mexico City: Lecturas Mexicanas, 1985; Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1977); Manuel Luis Martinez, "'With Imperious Eyes': Kerouac, Burroughs, and Ginsberg on the Road in South America," Aztlán 23, no. 1 (1998): 33-53; Mauricio Tenorio, "Viejos gringos: Radicales norteamericanos en los años treinta y su visión de México," Secuencia 21 (September-December 1991): 95-116; Carlos Monsiváis, "Los viajeros y la invención de México," Aztlán 15, no. 2 (1984): 201-29.

49. R. Gordon Wasson, "Seeking the Magic Mushroom," Life Magazine , 13 May 1957, 100-120. See also R. Gordon Wasson, "Foreword," in Alvaro Estrada, Vida de María Sabina: La sabia de los hongos , 9-17 (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1977 [1989]).

50. Estrada, Vida de María Sabina , 68.

51. "Road to Endsville," Newsweek , 9 February 1959, 58.

52. The next few sentences are based on Alvaro Estrada, Huautla en tiempo de hippies (Mexico City: Grijalbo, 1996).

53. Estrada, Vida de María Sabina , 81.

54. Ibid.

53. Estrada, Vida de María Sabina , 81.

54. Ibid.

55. Alejandro Ortiz Reja, "Invasión de 'beatniks' en Oaxaca. Parte I," Excélsior , 26 August 1967, A1. Locals previously sold mushrooms by the fistful for 5 to 10 pesos (less than U.S. $1.00). At one point, the town mayor tried to capitalize on the hippies' presence by organizing a "Baile a Go-Go" to raise funds for a school. No one showed up, however, and the town lost more than 400 pesos in the effort.

56. The Ballet Folklórico, a traveling dance troupe sponsored by the INBA, directly conveyed this sense of indigenous wonder, as did other, more explicitly tourist-oriented promotions. See Eric Zolov, "Post-War Repackaging of Mexico: The Cosmopolitan- Folklórico Axis" (paper presented at the conference, Representing Mexico: Transnationalism and the Politics of Culture since the Revolution, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, D.C.,., 7-8 November 1997); Néstor García Canclini, Transforming Modernity: Popular Culture in Mexico , trans. Lidia Lozano (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993 [1997]), 64-68.

57. "México y las drogas alucinantes," Jueves de Excélsior , 7 September 1967, 22-23.

58. Ibid.

57. "México y las drogas alucinantes," Jueves de Excélsior , 7 September 1967, 22-23.

58. Ibid.

59. Estrada, Huautla en tiempo de hippies , 64.

60. Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York: Penguin Books, 1982 [1988]), 235.

61. Andreas Huyssen, After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 218. Marshall Berman seeks to frame a discourse of postmodernism within the practices of modernism itself. Compare David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989).

62. Huyssen, After the Great Divide , 217. Huyssen makes his argument about postmodernism by discussing shifts primarily occurring in the art world. I am applying his argument here to social actors who, I believe, while not being "artists" in the strictest sense, did incorporate a postmodern aesthetic as part of a critique of everyday life.

63. Ortiz Reja, "Invasión de 'Beatniks.'"

64. "Echan del país a los 'hongadictos' de Oaxaca," Ultimas Noticias , 7 September 1967, 1.

65. "Ya nos invadieron los 'hippies,'" Jueves de Excélsior , 2 May 1968, 22-23. For a description of the hippie/psychedelic scene in Acapulco see José Agustín, El rock de la cárcel (Mexico City: Editores Mexicanos Unidos, 1986), passim.

66. "Lo efectivo y lo negativo de la industria turística," Jueves de Excélsior , 18 April 1968, 22-23.

67. "Ya nos invadieron los 'hippies.'"

68. Berman, All That Is Solid , 194-95.

69. Ruben Salazar, "The Cuevas 'Mafia's' Mexican Mural Revolt," Los Angeles Times , 25 June 1967, Calendar Section, 1. The mural was actually a triptych whose strongest visual feature was a self-portrait of the artist signing his own name. It went up in the midst of a congressional political campaign and was removed by Cuevas after a month.

70. "Ya nos invadieron los 'hippies.'"

71. "Pantalla Citadina," Jueves de Excélsior , 8 February 1968, 33; 22 February 1968, 37.

72. "Aparecen los 'Mexican Hippies,'" Jueves de Excélsior , 3 October 1968, 14-15.

73. Ibid.

72. "Aparecen los 'Mexican Hippies,'" Jueves de Excélsior , 3 October 1968, 14-15.

73. Ibid.

74. René Rebetez, "La guerra de las melenas: Unos y otros," El Heraldo Cultural , 26 May 1968, 6. Following Moctezuma II's death and the retaking of Tenochtitlán from the Spanish, his nephew Cuitláhuac ascended to the Aztec throne. When Cuitláhuac then contracted smallpox and died, the eighteen-year old Cuauhtémoc became the last Aztec emperor; he died a martyr at the hands of Spanish torturers. A statue of Cuauhtémoc was constructed in the

capital during the Porfiriato as part of an incipient, state-sponsored indigenist movement.

75. Carlos Monsiváis, "México 1967," La Cultura en México , 17 January 1968, 7.

76. Domingo, "Cafés a go-go."

77. Carlos Monsiváis, "La nueva generación en Mexico," El Heraldo de México , 21 December 1967, D1.

78. Kevin M. Kelleghan, "Image Battle Shapes in Mexico as Firms Gear for 'Tomorrow,'" Billboard Music Week , 22 July 1967, 49.

79. "'British Sound' Adds Mucho Momentum to Mexico's Emerging Disk Industry," Variety , 20 July 1966, 53.

80. Kelleghan, "Image Battle."

81. "'British Sound.'"

82. Kelleghan, "Image Battle."

83. Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (Toronto: Bantam, 1987), 205.

84. Agustín, Nueva música clásica , 5. For a review of Agustín's book by Carlos Monsiváis see "La Nueva Música Clásica," La Cultura en México , 26 June 1968, n.p. Monsiváis argued that rock "seeks to subvert not one, but all structures within its reach." For a later reflection on Agustín's intentions in writing the book see his Rock de la cárcel , 43.

85. A 1975 advertisement for Televisa, the television conglomerate, featured its logo (a series of shaded horizontal lines that create the effect of an eye) deep inside the psychedelic effect of spiraling tunnel vision, with the text: "Siempre estamos en onda." This text plays on the term onda to mean both "with it" (estar en onda) and "wavelength" ("on the air''). See Antena , July 1975, 4.

86. José Agustín, "Cuál es La Onda," Diálogos 10, no. 1 (1974), 12.

87. Ibid.

86. José Agustín, "Cuál es La Onda," Diálogos 10, no. 1 (1974), 12.

87. Ibid.

88. Monsiváis, "México 1967," 5.

89. Ibid., 8.

88. Monsiváis, "México 1967," 5.

89. Ibid., 8.

90. Advertisement, POP , 20 September 1968, 23. For a historical analysis of the commercialization of countercultural trends during the 1960s in the United States, see Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).

91. "Como tú," POP , 15 February 1968, 1.

92. "Problemas juveniles," POP , 1 March 1968, 6.

93. "Los hippies," POP , 15 March 1968, 49.

94. Conchita Cervantes, interview with the author, Mexico City, 22 August 1996.

95. Ruiz, interview.

96. "Mexican Leader Sees No Harm in Hippies," New York Times , 19 April 1968. Díaz Ordaz's comments were also quoted in other articles in the Mexican press.

97. Robert Marrow, letter to President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, 22 April 1968, Comunicaciones: Galería 3, Uncataloged boxes, Box 422, AGN. The letter included a copy of the New York Times article.

98. "Night Life Swings, but not for the Peso Counter," Billboard Music Week , 16 December 1967, 11 (M).

99. Ibid.

98. "Night Life Swings, but not for the Peso Counter," Billboard Music Week , 16 December 1967, 11 (M).

99. Ibid.

100. Agustín, Nueva música clásica , 5.

101. Luis de Llano Jr., interview with Andrew Paxman, Mexico City, 18 December 1997.

102. José Agustín wrote several of the first television scripts for the show before leaving to write for Happenings a Go-Go , a show with a similar content theme. During the student movement of 1968 the latter program's constant references to the demonstrators forced a confrontation with Telesistema, which canceled the renewal of its contract. See Agustín, Rock de la cárcel , 62-3.

103. Luis Urías, "¡1, 2, 3, 4, 5 a Go-Go! Al borde del efímero electrónico," Zona Rosa , 15 March 1968, 8-9.

104. This inversion is also reflected in the Walt Disney cartoon film The Three Caballeros (1945), which was distributed by the Office of the Coordinator for Inter-American Affairs throughout Latin America toward the end of World War II. In one of the opening scenes, "Pablo Penguin" repeatedly seeks to leave his "civilized" South Pole habitat in search of "the isle of his dreams,'' located in the "lazy" tropics. For an interesting analysis of the film see Julianne Burton, "Don (Juanito) Duck and the Imperial-Patriarchal Unconscious: Disney Studios, the Good Neighbor Policy, and the Packaging of Latin America," in Andrew Parker and others, eds., Nationalisms and Sexualities (New York: Routledge, 1992), 21-41.

105. "Dug Dugs: Fue o musical! En la pista de hielo," POP , 17 May 1968, 24-25.

106. Oscar Chávez, interview with the author, Mexico City, 5 August 1996. The resurgence of folk music in the United States was also noted. Pete Seeger, in fact, had performed in Mexico in 1966. See, for example, Dalibor Saldátic, "Discos," Punto de Partida 1, no. 1 (1966), 49-51.

107. "Radio Universidad de México," Gaceta de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , 1 July 1968, 15.

108. "El Centro Popular de Cultura," Gaceta de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , 1 April 1968, 10.

109. Rincón, interview.

110. "Cream: Disraeli Gears," Gaceta de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , 1 July 1968, 14-15. The alternative student literary journal Punto de Partida featured several articles on music, ranging from folk to rock. See in particular its first issue, which appeared in 1966.

111. "Beatlemima, una nueva experiencia: Entrevista con Juan Gabriel Moreno," Gaceta de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , 1 August 1968, 15. The concept of the performance involved a "search to integrate the aesthetic movements of dance with a utilization of space and human form."

112. Evelyn P. Stevens, Protest and Response in Mexico (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974), chap. 6; Sergio Zermeño, México: Una democracia utópica: El movimiento estudiantil del 68 (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1978 [1991]).

113. Gilberto Guevara Niebla, La democracia en la calle: Crónica del movimiento estudiantil mexicano (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1988), 19-37.

114. Marco Bellingeri, "La imposibilidad del odio: La guerrilla y el movimiento estudiantil en México, 1960-1974," in Ilán Semo, ed., La transición interrumpida: México, 1968-1988 (Mexico City: Universidad Iberoamericana / Nueva Imagen, 1993), 49-73.

115. Guevara Niebla, Democracia en la calle , 45-49.

116. The description that follows is based on the chronologies in Stevens, Protest and Response; and Elena Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , trans. Helen Lane (New York: Viking Press, 1975).

117. Quoted in Stevens, Protest and Response , 203. See also "La patria es primero" and related documents, Comunicaciones: Galería 3, Administración Pública; Díaz Ordaz Papers, Box 435, AGN.

118. Guevara Niebla, Democracia en la calle , 40.

119. Ibid., 49.

118. Guevara Niebla, Democracia en la calle , 40.

119. Ibid., 49.

120. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 128. Despite reservations regarding Lane's translation of Poniatowska, I have chosen for simplicity's sake to retain her versions of the Spanish original when citing from that work.

121. Quoted in Bellingeri, "La imposibilidad del odio," 53. Article 145 was not repealed until 1970.

122. César Gilabert, El hábito de la utopía: Análisis del imaginario socio-político en el movimiento estudiantil de México, 1968 (Mexico City: Instituto Mora / Miguel Angel Porrua, 1993), 153-219; Soledad Loaeza, "México-1968: Los orígenes de la transición," in Ilán Semo, ed., La transición interrumpida: México, 1968-1988 (Mexico City: Universidad Iberoamericana / Nueva Imagen, 1993), 15-47.

123. For an interesting attempt at global analysis see George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End Press, 1987); see also Ronald Fraser, ed., 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt: An International Oral History (New York: Pantheon, 1988); Robert V. Daniels, Year of the Heroic Guerrilla: World Revolution and Counterrevolution in 1968 (New York: Basic Books, 1989).

124. Stevens, Protest and Response , 208.

125. Gilabert, Hábito , 163-65.

126. Rincón, interview.

127. This term was used several times during my interview with Manuel Ruiz.

128. Pontones, interview.

129. Ruiz, interview.

130. The following discussion is based on the article by Deborah Cohen and Lessie Jo Frazier, "'No sólo cocinábamos ...': Historia inédita de la otra mitad del 68," in Ilán Semo, ed., La transición interrumpida: México, 1968-

1988 (Mexico City: Universidad Iberoamericana / Nueva Imagen, 1993), 75-105.

131. Ibid., 103.

132. Ibid., 99.

130. The following discussion is based on the article by Deborah Cohen and Lessie Jo Frazier, "'No sólo cocinábamos ...': Historia inédita de la otra mitad del 68," in Ilán Semo, ed., La transición interrumpida: México, 1968-

1988 (Mexico City: Universidad Iberoamericana / Nueva Imagen, 1993), 75-105.

131. Ibid., 103.

132. Ibid., 99.

130. The following discussion is based on the article by Deborah Cohen and Lessie Jo Frazier, "'No sólo cocinábamos ...': Historia inédita de la otra mitad del 68," in Ilán Semo, ed., La transición interrumpida: México, 1968-

1988 (Mexico City: Universidad Iberoamericana / Nueva Imagen, 1993), 75-105.

131. Ibid., 103.

132. Ibid., 99.

133. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 17-18.

134. Stevens, Protest and Response , 204. This language, she might have added, was drawn heavily from lower-class slang and was deemed an affront to buenas costumbres.

135. POP , 20 September 1968, 3. Reference to "being a citizen" was directly tied to the proposed lowering of the voting age from twenty-one to eighteen, which took effect under Echeverría. The editor of POP at the time, Víctor Blanco Labra, later went on to work for Televisa. Subsequent editors would take the magazine in a more radical direction that directly supported La Onda.

136. For examples see Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 20-22; and Stevens, Protest and Response , 207.

137. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 55.

138. The term poach comes from Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life , trans. Steven Rendall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984 [1998]), 37.

139. Gilabert, Hábito , 204.

140. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 33.

141. Ibid., 32. Adolfo Gilly later wrote, "In his separation from Cuba and power so that he could begin his struggle anew, in his not belonging to any county but to all, in his gestures, his life, and his death Che Guevara seemed to symbolize the realization of those youth who did not want to substitute for the existing powers that be, but to deny them altogether" (Adolfo Gilly, "1968: La ruptura en los bordes," Nexos 191 [1993]: 32).

140. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 33.

141. Ibid., 32. Adolfo Gilly later wrote, "In his separation from Cuba and power so that he could begin his struggle anew, in his not belonging to any county but to all, in his gestures, his life, and his death Che Guevara seemed to symbolize the realization of those youth who did not want to substitute for the existing powers that be, but to deny them altogether" (Adolfo Gilly, "1968: La ruptura en los bordes," Nexos 191 [1993]: 32).

142. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 41. See also Gilabert, Hábito , 217-19.

143. See Carlos Martínez Assad, "La voz de los muros," in Hermann Bellinghausen, ed., Pensar el 68 (Mexico City: Cal y Arena, 1988), 73-75.

144. "Respuesta al apoyo de intelectuales y artistas mexicanos," Fondo Particular, Movimiento Estudiantil, 1968, Expediente 3, Fichas 101-150, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mßxico, Hemeroteca, Centro de Estudios sobre la Universidad. (Hereafter cited as CESU.)

145. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 145. "Gustavo" was the president's first name.

146. Ibid., 47.

145. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 145. "Gustavo" was the president's first name.

146. Ibid., 47.

147. Stevens, Protest and Response , 204.

148. Gilabert, Hábito , 157.

149. Stevens, Protest and Response , 214.

150. For a personal account of the fear and drama surrounding one leader's life in the aftermath of the army incursion see Gilberto Guevara Niebla, "Volver al 68," Nexos 190 (1993): 31-43.

151. Ibid., 33.

152. Ibid.

150. For a personal account of the fear and drama surrounding one leader's life in the aftermath of the army incursion see Gilberto Guevara Niebla, "Volver al 68," Nexos 190 (1993): 31-43.

151. Ibid., 33.

152. Ibid.

150. For a personal account of the fear and drama surrounding one leader's life in the aftermath of the army incursion see Gilberto Guevara Niebla, "Volver al 68," Nexos 190 (1993): 31-43.

151. Ibid., 33.

152. Ibid.

153. According to Guevara Niebla (ibid., 34), an infiltrator must have passed along the information that the march was canceled in favor of a meeting, which presented an ideal situation for a massacre. One suspects, however, that the secrecy of a public meeting would have been difficult to shield from the authorities.

154. Colin M. MacLachlan and William H. Beezley, El Gran Pueblo: A History of Greater Mexico (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1994), 370.

155. Guevara Niebla, "Volver al 68," 37-42.

156. Stevens, in Protest and Response , uses the New York Times estimate of around 200, which was probably somewhat conservative in its own right (p. 237). The Manchester Guardian reported 325 killed (cited in MacLachlan and Beezley, Gran Pueblo , 369).

157. For a dramatic depiction of the massacre's effect on the life of one Mexican family see the film Rojo amanecer (Dir. Jorge Fons, 1989). Today the Lecumberri serves as the AGN.

158. See Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico; Cecilia Imaz Bayona, "El apoyo popular al movimiento estudiantil de 1968," Revista Mexicana de Sociología 37, no. 2 (1975): 363-92.

159. "El Poder Juvenil—II. Las Parricidas," El Heraldo Cultural , 15 September 1968, 8-9.

160. Poniatowska, Massacre in Mexico , 82.

161. Jorge Rodríguez Inzunza, "Anónimo 68: Hasta la cirrosis siempre," Vía Libre 1, no. 9 (1988), 34. Alfredo Díaz Ordaz, the president's son, was a known jipi and an aspiring rock musician. He died in 1994.

162. Gilabert, Hábito , 161.

163. Carlos Monsiváis, "Ya nunca nada volverá a ser como antes," Zona Rosa , September 1968, 16-17.