1. Romain Rolland, "Europe and the Coloured Peoples," Foreign Affairs 1, no. 11 (1 May 1920): 1; Romain Rolland, "A Letter from Romain Rolland," Foreign Affairs 2, no. 12 (June 1921): 185.

2. Romain Rolland, "The Iron Net," Survey 56, no. 9 (1 August 1926): 495-496; for the full version of this article, see letter from Rolland to Paul Kellog, 18 November 1925, BV, 227-230.

3. Rolland, "Iron Net," 496.

4. Romain Rolland, "L'Appel aux intellectuels. Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," published in La Liberté (Cairo), no. 981; letter is dated 18 December 1924, ARR.

5. Romain Rolland, "Réponse de Romain Rolland, 'Que pensez-vous de la guerre du Maroc?' " Clarté, no. 76 (15 July 1925): 271; Rolland, "Appel aux travailleurs intellectuels. Oui ou non, condamnez-vous la guerre?" ibid., 285; this appeal was also signed by Barbusse and the Clarté group, the Philosophies circle of Norbert Guterman, Henri Lefebvre, Pierre Morhange, and Georges Politzer, as well as by Marcel Martinet, Georges Pioch, Charles Vildrac, and Léon Werth.

4. Romain Rolland, "L'Appel aux intellectuels. Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," published in La Liberté (Cairo), no. 981; letter is dated 18 December 1924, ARR.

5. Romain Rolland, "Réponse de Romain Rolland, 'Que pensez-vous de la guerre du Maroc?' " Clarté, no. 76 (15 July 1925): 271; Rolland, "Appel aux travailleurs intellectuels. Oui ou non, condamnez-vous la guerre?" ibid., 285; this appeal was also signed by Barbusse and the Clarté group, the Philosophies circle of Norbert Guterman, Henri Lefebvre, Pierre Morhange, and Georges Politzer, as well as by Marcel Martinet, Georges Pioch, Charles Vildrac, and Léon Werth.

6. Rolland, "Réponse de Romain Rolland, 'Que pensez-vous de la guerre du Maroc?'" 271.

7. Rolland, "Iron Net," 495, 496.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid. Also see Romain Rolland, "Protestation contre l'invasion du Nicaragua par les troupes des Etats-Unis," Front uni des travailleurs et intellectuels de l'Amérique latine (1927), ARR.

7. Rolland, "Iron Net," 495, 496.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid. Also see Romain Rolland, "Protestation contre l'invasion du Nicaragua par les troupes des Etats-Unis," Front uni des travailleurs et intellectuels de l'Amérique latine (1927), ARR.

7. Rolland, "Iron Net," 495, 496.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid. Also see Romain Rolland, "Protestation contre l'invasion du Nicaragua par les troupes des Etats-Unis," Front uni des travailleurs et intellectuels de l'Amérique latine (1927), ARR.

10. Romain Rolland, "Adresse aux étudiants et travailleurs indo-chinois en France" (17 May 1926), QAC, 69-71; this first appeared in the monthly Indochinese newspaper, Viêt-Nam-Hön, published in Paris; also see letter from Rolland to Cheng Tcheng, 13 January 1927, ARR. For Romain Rolland's influence on Chinese intellectuals, see T. B. Kin-Yn-Yn, "La Renaissance Chinoise et l'influence de Romain Rolland," Europe, 15 September 1927, 101-108.

11. Letters from Rolland to Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, 14 September 1925, QAC, xxx; and to Louis Rougier, 14 November 1924, ibid., xxxii-xxxiii; also see Romain Rolland, "Sur Pan-Europe," ibid., 97-98; this was first published in L'Effort (Lyons), 28 January 1930; for a full critique of pan-European ideas, see Romain Rolland's debate with Gaston Riou, summarized in his "Europe, élargis-toi, ou meurs." QAC, 112-126.

10. Romain Rolland, "Adresse aux étudiants et travailleurs indo-chinois en France" (17 May 1926), QAC, 69-71; this first appeared in the monthly Indochinese newspaper, Viêt-Nam-Hön, published in Paris; also see letter from Rolland to Cheng Tcheng, 13 January 1927, ARR. For Romain Rolland's influence on Chinese intellectuals, see T. B. Kin-Yn-Yn, "La Renaissance Chinoise et l'influence de Romain Rolland," Europe, 15 September 1927, 101-108.

11. Letters from Rolland to Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, 14 September 1925, QAC, xxx; and to Louis Rougier, 14 November 1924, ibid., xxxii-xxxiii; also see Romain Rolland, "Sur Pan-Europe," ibid., 97-98; this was first published in L'Effort (Lyons), 28 January 1930; for a full critique of pan-European ideas, see Romain Rolland's debate with Gaston Riou, summarized in his "Europe, élargis-toi, ou meurs." QAC, 112-126.

12. Romain Rolland, "Le Pact Kellog," Monde, no. 12 (25 August 1928): 1; "Le Pact Kellog et la comédie de la paix," L'Effort, 30 October 1928; ''Contre le traité de paix,'' Cri des peuples, 10 February 1929; "Contre la guerre. Un Appel de Romain Rolland," Monde, no. 67 (14 September 1929): 3; "La Piraterie de la paix," PRP, 19-26; this first appeared in Europe, 15 November 1929, 431-436; Russian trans. Izvestia; "Il faut réviser les traités" (30 October 1931), PRP, 107-109; "Il faut réviser les traités," PRP, 110-111, first published in L'Effort, January 1932; and "Il faut réviser tout l'ordre social" (23 April 1932), PRP, 112-118.

13. See Peter Brock, Twentieth Century Pacifism (New York, 1970). Though Brock's essay is excellent on British, Indian, and American varieties of pacifism, it is scanty on Continental peace movements.

14. Romain Rolland, "Message à la Volonté de paix," PRP, 100-104, first published in Volonté de paix, no. 5 (October-December 1928); Romain Rolland, "Réponse à l'exposé d'Eugen Relgis," in Eugen Relgis, L'Internationale pacifiste (Paris, 1929), 27-29; see Jean Train, "Sur Romain Rolland," Mère éducatrice, no. 7-9 (July-September 1929): 5.

15. These debates are discussed in David James Fisher, "Romain Rolland and the Question of the Intellectual," Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1973, 320-372.

16. Romain Rolland, "Contre la loi militaire," PRP, 144 n. 1; this first appeared in Europe, no. 53 (15 May 1927): 62. Also see Romain Rolland, "Postface," in Marianne Rauze, L'AntiGuerre. Essai d'une doctrine et d'une philosophie de l'antimilitarisme en 1923 (Niort, 1923), 187-192; this was reprinted as "Contre du pacifisme négatif," in PRP, 93-97. One of the leading advocates of peacetime civil service was the Swiss Pierre Cérésole; see Pierre Hirsch, ed., Bon Voisinage. Edmond Privat et Romain Rolland (Neuchâtel, 1977).

17. Romain Rolland, "Le Devoir des intellectuels contre la guerre," PRP, 143-148; first published in L'Avenir social (Brussels), 1 May 1927.

18. Jean Biès, Littérature française et pensée hindouie. Des origins à 1950 (Paris, 1974), 9-351; Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979), 166-197, 226-254.

19. David James Fisher, "Pacifism and the Intellectual: The Case of Romain Rolland," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 91-94; R. A. Francis, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi: A Study in Communication," Journal of European Studies 5 (1975): 291-307; David James Fisher, "Romain Rolland and the Popularization of Gandhi, 1923-1925," Gandhi Marg, 18, no. 3 (July 1974): 145-180; Biès, Littérature française et pensée hindoue, 357-428; Margaret W. Fisher, "Introduction" to Romain Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi (New York, 1973), 5-36; V. V. Ramana Murti, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi," Gandhi Marg, no. 37 (January 1966): 40; Pierre Meile, "Gandhi, ou la sagesse déchainée," in M. K. Gandhi, Autobiographie ou mes expériences de vérité (Paris, 1964), 6; Camille Drevet, "Gandhi in France," Gandhi Marg, no. 4 (October 1959): 302.

20. Paul Clay Sorum, Intellectuals and Decolonization in France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1977).

21. Joseph J. Doke's M. K. Gandhi, An Indian Patriot in South Africa (London, 1909) was the first book on Gandhi.

22. René Grousset, Histoire de la philosophie orientale (Paris, 1923); Histoire de l'Asie (Paris, 1924), vol. 2; and Le Réveil de l'Asie (Paris, 1924). See also René Guénon, Introduction aux doctrines hindoues (Paris, 1921), and L'Orient et l'Occident (Paris, 1924).

23. "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925). Participants included Gabriel Audisio, Henri Barbusse, André Breton, Paul Claudel, André Desson, Florent Fels, Claude Ferrière, André Gide, René Guénon, André Harlaire, Franz Hellens, Dinet and Sliman ben Ibraham, Sylvain Lévi, René Lalou, Henri Massis, Paul Masson-Oursel, André Maurois, Romain Rolland, Sédir, Fritz von Unruh, and Paul Valéry.

24. Henri Barbusse, "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 244; André Breton, ibid., 250-251.

23. "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925). Participants included Gabriel Audisio, Henri Barbusse, André Breton, Paul Claudel, André Desson, Florent Fels, Claude Ferrière, André Gide, René Guénon, André Harlaire, Franz Hellens, Dinet and Sliman ben Ibraham, Sylvain Lévi, René Lalou, Henri Massis, Paul Masson-Oursel, André Maurois, Romain Rolland, Sédir, Fritz von Unruh, and Paul Valéry.

24. Henri Barbusse, "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 244; André Breton, ibid., 250-251.

25. Paul Valéry, "Puissance de choix de l'Europe," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 16-17.

26. Henri Massis, "Mises au point," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 30-38; also see "Henri Massis nous parle de la Grande Asie de Romain Rolland et Rabindranath Tagore," Journal littéraire, no. 42 (7 February 1925): 4; Henri Massis, Défense de l'Occident (Paris, 1927). For an introduction to Massis, see Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 5-18.

27. This was well articulated by Sylvain Lévi's "Distinction," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 11-13; and André Gide, "Les Appels de l'Orient," ibid., 18; also see Sylvain Lévi's L'Inde et le monde (Paris, 1926).

26. Henri Massis, "Mises au point," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 30-38; also see "Henri Massis nous parle de la Grande Asie de Romain Rolland et Rabindranath Tagore," Journal littéraire, no. 42 (7 February 1925): 4; Henri Massis, Défense de l'Occident (Paris, 1927). For an introduction to Massis, see Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 5-18.

27. This was well articulated by Sylvain Lévi's "Distinction," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 11-13; and André Gide, "Les Appels de l'Orient," ibid., 18; also see Sylvain Lévi's L'Inde et le monde (Paris, 1926).

28. Romain Rolland, "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 322.

29. For Romain Rolland's personal reaction to the works of Massis and Lévi, see letters to Kalidas Nag, 18 July 1924, ARR; and 2 May 1925, RT-RR, 132; also see Romain Rolland, L'Inde. Journal, 1915-1943 (Paris, 1951), 46, 289, 411, 488; he preferred the scholarly works of Paul Masson-Oursel to those of Lévi and Massis. For Romain Rolland's thoughts on Europe's degeneration, see his conversation with Tagore, 24 June 1926, RT-RR, 183.

30. Rolland, L'Inde, 39-40. In addition, see letter from Rolland to Hermann Hesse, 5 April 1923, HH-RR, 100-101; Hesse replied on 6 April 1923, ibid., 101-103. Hesse's ability to absorb Eastern religious ideas was related to his marginal position in European intellectual currents.

29. For Romain Rolland's personal reaction to the works of Massis and Lévi, see letters to Kalidas Nag, 18 July 1924, ARR; and 2 May 1925, RT-RR, 132; also see Romain Rolland, L'Inde. Journal, 1915-1943 (Paris, 1951), 46, 289, 411, 488; he preferred the scholarly works of Paul Masson-Oursel to those of Lévi and Massis. For Romain Rolland's thoughts on Europe's degeneration, see his conversation with Tagore, 24 June 1926, RT-RR, 183.

30. Rolland, L'Inde, 39-40. In addition, see letter from Rolland to Hermann Hesse, 5 April 1923, HH-RR, 100-101; Hesse replied on 6 April 1923, ibid., 101-103. Hesse's ability to absorb Eastern religious ideas was related to his marginal position in European intellectual currents.

31. Romain Rolland, "Au P.E.N. Club de Londres (Pour la première réunion internationale du Club Internationale des Ecrivains)," 1 May 1923, QAC, 59-61; first published in Europe, 15 June 1923, 102-105. Romain Rolland, "'Sur l'occupation de la Ruhr," QAC, 61-62; first published in Rassegna internazionale, July 1923, and in Libres Propos, 6 October 1923, 218. Romain Rolland, "Appel aux français pour venir en aide aux malheureux d'Allemagne," QAC, 62-64; this first appeared in Europe, 15 February 1924, 233-234; L'Universel, February 1924, 1; and Revue européene, no. 13 (1 March 1924): 72-73; letter from Rolland to Ernst Toller, 20 November 1924, ARR; also consult QAC, 71.

32. Rolland, L'Inde, 9-11.

33. Ibid., 12-13; also see Romain Rolland, Les Précurseurs (1919; Ge-

neva, 1971), 191; Rabindranath Tagore, "Le Message de l'Inde au Japon," trans. Andrée Jouve, in Romain Rolland, A la civilisation (Paris, 1917), 25-30.

32. Rolland, L'Inde, 9-11.

33. Ibid., 12-13; also see Romain Rolland, Les Précurseurs (1919; Ge-

neva, 1971), 191; Rabindranath Tagore, "Le Message de l'Inde au Japon," trans. Andrée Jouve, in Romain Rolland, A la civilisation (Paris, 1917), 25-30.

34. Letters from Rolland to Tagore, 26 August 1919, 10 April 1919, 25 April 1921, RT-RR, 26-28, 21-22, 34-35; also see Rolland, L'Inde, 19-27.

35. Rolland, "Avant-Propos pour La Danse de Civa d'Ananda Coomaraswamy," L'Inde, 598-604; this first appeared in Ananda Coomaraswamy, La Danse de Civa, trans. Madeleine Rolland (Paris, 1922). Letter from Rolland to Dilip Kumar Roy, 24 February 1924, in D. K. Roy, Among the Great (Bombay, 1945), 86-89; also published in G-RR, 208-210; English translation, Romain Rolland and Gandhi Correspondence, trans. R. A. Francis (New Delhi, 1976), 23-25; also see letters from Rolland to Maxim Gorky, 4 April 1922, 16 September 1922, 8 February 1923, 4 October 1923, 1 August 1924, 16 October 1924, ARR; from Rolland to Roy, 1 October 1924, Among the Great, 60-62.

36. Romain Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1924), 14.

37. Letters from Rolland to Nag, 21 October 1924, RT-RR, 118-119; from Rolland to Marcel Martinet, 1 November 1924, ARR. From 1923 to 1924, Revue européene was more receptive than Europe to the Indian cultural influence; it published "Deux Poèmes de Tagore," trans. P.-J. Jouve, no. 8 (1923): 21-23; and C. F. Andrews, "Une Journée avec Mahatma Gandhi," no. 21 (1 November 1924): 47-54; with an introduction by Romain Rolland.

38. Rolland, L'Inde, 18.

39. Ibid., 34-35.

40. Ibid., 39. Rolland acknowledged his intellectual debt to Nag in Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1966), 9; see letters from Rolland to Nag, 14 August 1922, G-RR, 172, and 12 November 1922, ARR.

38. Rolland, L'Inde, 18.

39. Ibid., 34-35.

40. Ibid., 39. Rolland acknowledged his intellectual debt to Nag in Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1966), 9; see letters from Rolland to Nag, 14 August 1922, G-RR, 172, and 12 November 1922, ARR.

38. Rolland, L'Inde, 18.

39. Ibid., 34-35.

40. Ibid., 39. Rolland acknowledged his intellectual debt to Nag in Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1966), 9; see letters from Rolland to Nag, 14 August 1922, G-RR, 172, and 12 November 1922, ARR.

41. Romain Rolland, "La Réponse de l'Asie à Tolstoï" (May 1927), Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 214-231; first published in Europe, 15 July 1928, 338-357; "Lettre écrite par Tolstoï deux mois avant sa mort, à Gandhi," in Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï, 331-335. For Romain Rolland's relations with Tolstoy and Tolstoy as a bridge between Gandhi and Romain Rolland, see Romain Rolland, Monsieur le Comte. Romain Rolland et Léon Tolstoy textes (Paris, 1981), 135, 139, 149, 166-167.

42. Letter from Rolland to Nag, 21 December 1922, G-RR, 173.

43. Letter from Rolland to Nag, 12 November 1922, ARR; also see letters from Rolland to Louise Cruppi, 25 January 1923; to Paul Colin, 25 January 1923; to Maurice Delamin, 7 February 1923, G-RR, 175, 175-176, 177-178; to Colin, 25 January 1923; to Paul Amann, 9 February 1923, G-RR, 175, 180. The biography was published in three parts in Europe, 15 March 1923, 129-163; 15 April 1923, 267-310; 15 May 1923, 427-454; the concluding remarks of the final chapter were published under the title "L'Evangile de la nonviolence," in Libres Propos, 16 June 1923, 72-74. It was released in book form by the French publisher Les Editions Stock in 1924, and translated into English by Catherine P. Groth as Mahatma Gandhi: The Man Who Became One with the Universal Being (New York, 1924; reprint, New York, 1973). I will cite the definitive French edition of 1966.

44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.

45. Ibid., 64.

46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.

47. Ibid., 48, 73.

48. Ibid., 49-50.

49. Ibid., 109-112.

50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.

44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.

45. Ibid., 64.

46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.

47. Ibid., 48, 73.

48. Ibid., 49-50.

49. Ibid., 109-112.

50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.

44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.

45. Ibid., 64.

46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.

47. Ibid., 48, 73.

48. Ibid., 49-50.

49. Ibid., 109-112.

50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.

44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.

45. Ibid., 64.

46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.

47. Ibid., 48, 73.

48. Ibid., 49-50.

49. Ibid., 109-112.

50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.

44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.

45. Ibid., 64.

46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.

47. Ibid., 48, 73.

48. Ibid., 49-50.

49. Ibid., 109-112.

50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.

44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.

45. Ibid., 64.

46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.

47. Ibid., 48, 73.

48. Ibid., 49-50.

49. Ibid., 109-112.

50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.

44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.

45. Ibid., 64.

46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.

47. Ibid., 48, 73.

48. Ibid., 49-50.

49. Ibid., 109-112.

50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.

51. For representative historical evaluations of the events at Chauri Chaura, see D. G. Tendulkar, Mahatma: The Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Bombay, 1951), 2:101-123; B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: A Biography (London, 1958), 235-237; Francis Watson, The Trial of Mr. Gandhi (London, 1969), 184-185; Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 89, 96.

52. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 96.

53. Ibid., 84-85.

54. Ibid., 44, 48.

52. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 96.

53. Ibid., 84-85.

54. Ibid., 44, 48.

52. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 96.

53. Ibid., 84-85.

54. Ibid., 44, 48.

55. Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (New York, 1969), 229-254; Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 86.

56. Ibid., 85; V. V. Ramana Murti, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi," Gandhi Marg , no. 37 (January 1966): 40, observes that Romain Rolland draws his portrait from "a Tagorean viewpoint."

55. Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (New York, 1969), 229-254; Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 86.

56. Ibid., 85; V. V. Ramana Murti, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi," Gandhi Marg , no. 37 (January 1966): 40, observes that Romain Rolland draws his portrait from "a Tagorean viewpoint."

57. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 85.

58. Ibid., 113.

57. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 85.

58. Ibid., 113.

59. Romain Rolland, "L'Inde depuis la libération de Gandhi," Europe , 15 April 1924, 507-514. This essay served as the "postface" in later editions (see Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 117-126) but is not included in the English translation. Gandhi was released from prison on 2 February 1924.

60. Romain Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," G-RR , 349-361; first published in Revue européene , no. 20 (1 October 1924): 1-15. This served as Romain Rolland's introduction to the French abridgement of Gandhi's Jeune Inde (Paris, 1924), trans. Hélène Hart; English translation in Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 509-519.

61. Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," 514.

62. Ibid., 513.

63. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 21, 43 n. 25, 111; Romain Rolland cited M. N. Roy, India in Transition (Geneva, 1922), and M. N. Roy and Evelyn Roy, One Year of Non-Cooperation (Calcutta, 1923), adding that these brochures "set forth the communist thesis, in opposition to Gandhi," ibid., 130.

61. Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," 514.

62. Ibid., 513.

63. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 21, 43 n. 25, 111; Romain Rolland cited M. N. Roy, India in Transition (Geneva, 1922), and M. N. Roy and Evelyn Roy, One Year of Non-Cooperation (Calcutta, 1923), adding that these brochures "set forth the communist thesis, in opposition to Gandhi," ibid., 130.

61. Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," 514.

62. Ibid., 513.

63. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 21, 43 n. 25, 111; Romain Rolland cited M. N. Roy, India in Transition (Geneva, 1922), and M. N. Roy and Evelyn Roy, One Year of Non-Cooperation (Calcutta, 1923), adding that these brochures "set forth the communist thesis, in opposition to Gandhi," ibid., 130.

64. Despite the popularity of Romain Rolland's volume on Gandhi, it was ignored by reviewers. Three rare but not substantive reviews are Charles Henry Hirsch, Mercure de France 165 (1 July 1923): 191-192, and 175 (1 November 1924): 793; Jean Caves, "Le Nihilisme européen et les Appels de l'Orient," Philosophies , no. 2 (15 May 1924): 190-195; and Paul Souday, " Mahatma Gandhi de R. Rolland," Le Temps , 13 March 1924. Letters from Rolland to Luc Durtain, 1 June 1923; to Waldo Frank, 17 June 1923; to Stefan Zweig, 22 March 1924; G-RR , 192, 196, 212.

65. Ram-Prasad Dube, "Les Aspects sociaux au mouvement Gandhi dans l'Inde," Clarté , no. 8 (1 March 1922): 188-191.

66. M. N. Roy, "Le Congrès national de Gaya. Vers la disparition du quiétisme de Gandhi," L'Humanité , 3 March 1923, 3.

67. Executive Committee of the Communist International, "Les Crimes de l'impérialisme brittanique," L'Humanité , 19 March 1923, 3.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.

69. Ibid., 315.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 317.

72. Ibid., 317-318.

73. Ibid., 318.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid., 319.

76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.

77. Letters from Rolland to Jacques Mesnil, 12 March 1923; and to J. Taupin, 12 March 1923, G-RR , 188, 188-189.

78. Letter from Rolland to Roy, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 209.

79. Letter from Rolland to C. F. Andrews, 24 September 1924, G-RR , 218. Romain Rolland noted in March 1924 that his portrait of Gandhi was proscribed in the Soviet Union (ibid., 432).

78. Letter from Rolland to Roy, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 209.

79. Letter from Rolland to C. F. Andrews, 24 September 1924, G-RR , 218. Romain Rolland noted in March 1924 that his portrait of Gandhi was proscribed in the Soviet Union (ibid., 432).

80. Letter from Rolland to Andrews, 24 September 1924, G-RR , 217-218.

81. For the text of Gandhi's statement, see M. K. Gandhi, Non-Violence in Peace and War (Ahmedabad, 1962), 1:29-30, which first appeared in Young India , 12 December 1924.

82. Rolland, journal extract, January 1924, G-RR , 437-438. For Le Matin's exploitation of Gandhi's statement, see "Gandhi refuse de l'argent offert par Moscou pour fomenter la révolution aux Indes," Le Matin , 20 January 1925, 1.

83. Letter from Rolland to Roger Avermaete, 28 July 1924, G-RR , 215.

84. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 13-14.

85. Letters from Rolland to Gandhi, 1 October 1925, G-RR , 15; from Madeleine Slade to Rolland, 12 November 1925, ibid., 15-16; from Gandhi to Rolland, 13 November 1925, ibid., 16; journal extract, 14 September 1925, ibid., 439-440. Also consult Madeleine Slade, The Spirit's Pilgrimage (New York, 1960).

84. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 13-14.

85. Letters from Rolland to Gandhi, 1 October 1925, G-RR , 15; from Madeleine Slade to Rolland, 12 November 1925, ibid., 15-16; from Gandhi to Rolland, 13 November 1925, ibid., 16; journal extract, 14 September 1925, ibid., 439-440. Also consult Madeleine Slade, The Spirit's Pilgrimage (New York, 1960).

86. Letter from Gandhi to Rolland, 22 March 1924, G-RR , 14.

87. Rolland, journal extract, December 1924, G-RR , 437.

88. Letter from Gandhi to Emil Roniger, October 1926, G-RR , 26 (English translation in Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 77); also published in Liber Amicorum Romain Rolland , ed. Georges Duhamel, Maxim Gorky, and Stefan Zweig (Zurich, 1926), 155.

89. Letter from Rolland to Slade, 26 September 1926, G-RR , 22-23 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 72).

90. G-RR , 23 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 73).

91. Romain Rolland, "Hic et Nunc" (22 November 1926), in Le Voyage intérieur (Paris, 1959), 374-379.

92. Letters from Rolland to George Lenard, 8 March 1928; to Reginald Reynolds, 19 September 1930, G-RR , 240, 253 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 410, 423). Romain Rolland also used the line from Spinoza as the epigraph to Mère et fils (1927), in L'Ame enchantée , 431.

93. Rolland, "Hic et Nunc," 375, 376, 379.

94. Letter from Rolland to Slade, 10 December 1927, G-RR , 30-32 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 88-90); letters from Slade to Rolland, 6 January 1928, 12 February 1928, G-RR , 32-33, 34-35 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 90-91, 93-94); letter from Gandhi to Rolland, 17 February 1928, G-RR , 36-37 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 95-96); letter from Rolland to Slade, 21 January 1928, G-RR , 33 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 91-92).

95. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 8 March 1928, G-RR , 39-41 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 99-102); M. K. Gandhi, "My Part in the War," and "A Spiritual Dilemma," in An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (New York, 1971), 346-348, 348-350.

96. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 7 March 1928, G-RR , 41 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 101).

97. Letters from Rolland to Gandhi, 16 April 1928, 17 February 1928, G-RR , 46-48, 51-53 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 111-114, 128-130).

98. Message from Rolland to Reginald Reynolds for Gandhi's birthday, 1 October 1930, G-RR , 254-255 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 141).

99. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 10 September 1931, G-RR , 61-62 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 147-148); letter from Rolland to Slade, 9 November 1931, G-RR , 65-68 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence 156-159).

100. Rolland, journal extract, December 1931, G-RR , 70 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 163-164); the full text of Gandhi's visit is recorded in G-RR , 69-127.

101. Geoffrey Ashe, Gandhi (New York, 1969), 311-312; Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (New York, 1962), 298-301.

102. Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 73-76 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 168-171).

103. Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 75-76 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 169-170).

104. Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 83-85, 86, 115-116 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 179-181, 183, 217-218).

105. G-RR , 97-98, 114-117, 118-119 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 195-197, 216-217, 218-219). Only the revolutionary syndicalists covered Gandhi's visit to Europe; see D. Guérin, "Gandhi à Paris," Révolution prolétarienne , no. 122 (December 1931): 306-309. Gandhi replied to Monatte's question (posed by Romain Rolland) in Révolution prolétarienne , no. 123 (January 1932): 5-6.

106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.

107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.

108. Ibid., 320, 364.

109. Ibid.

106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.

107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.

108. Ibid., 320, 364.

109. Ibid.

106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.

107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.

108. Ibid., 320, 364.

109. Ibid.

106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.

107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.

108. Ibid., 320, 364.

109. Ibid.

110. Letter from Gandhi to Rolland, 20 December 1931, G-RR , 129.

111. Rolland, L'Inde , 423; dated 1933.

112. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 2 January 1932, G-RR , 134-135, ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 245-248). This letter was neither completed nor mailed because of Gandhi's arrest in India.

113. G-RR , 135.

114. Romain Rolland, Le Voyage intérieur. (Songe d'une vie) (Paris, 1959); Rolland, Beethoven. Les Grandes Epoques créatrices de l'Héroïque à l'Appassionata (Paris, 1928); Rolland, Goethe et Beethoven (Paris, 1930); Rolland

Essai sur la mystique et l'action de l'Inde vivante. La Vie de Ramakrishna (Paris, 1929) and La Vie de Vivekananda et l'évangile universel , 2 vols. (Paris, 1930).

115. Rolland, L'Inde , 262; also see letters from Rolland to Albert Crémieux, 8 February 1928; to Swami Ashkananda, 4 October 1927; to Swami Shivananda, 12 September 1927, ARR. Letter from Rolland to Roy, 22 August 1928, in Roy, Among the Great , 51-54.

116. Rolland coined the term "oceanic sensation" in a letter written to Sigmund Freud on 5 December 1927 ( BV , 264-266); see David James Fisher, "Sigmund Freud and Romain Rolland: The Terrestrial Animal and His Great Oceanic Friend," American Imago 33, no. 1 (Spring 1976): 1-59; and David James Fisher, "Reading Freud's Civilization and Its Discontents ," in Modern European Intellectual History , ed. Dominick LaCapra and Steven Kaplan (Ithaca, N.Y., 1982), 251-279.

117. Letter from Rolland to Freud, 17 July 1929, ARR. Also see Romain Rolland, The Life of Ramakrishna , trans. E. F. Malcolm-Smith (Calcutta, 1970), 4-5, 6-7; Rolland, The Life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel , trans. E. F. Malcolm-Smith (Calcutta, 1970), 254. For a study of Romain Rolland's religiosity, see Paul Claudel, "La Pensée religieuse de Romain Rolland," in Accompagnements (Paris, 1949), 62-88.

118. The following is a list of Romain Rolland's "Courrier de l'Inde" articles: "Courrier de l'Inde. La Déclaration de guerre de l'Angleterre à l'Inde," G-RR , 383-393 (first published in Europe , 15 February 1932, 250-260); "Courrier de l'Inde II. Echec au Roi!" G-RR , 394-406 (first published in Europe , 15 March 1932, 416-427); ''Courrier de l'Inde III. Révolution, le chef invisible," G-RR , 406-417 (first published in Europe , 15 May 1932, 108-119); "Le Christ des Indes,'' G-RR , 417-419 (first published in Journée internationale pour l'Inde , 6 October 1932); "Tagore et Gandhi pendant le jeune," L'Inde , 559-562 (first published in Europe , 15 November 1932, 448-551); "Vers l'unité de l'Inde par l'entente Hindoue-Musulmane," L'Inde , 559-562 (first published in Europe , 15 January 1933, 107-110); "Documents sur l'Inde," L'Inde , 568-572 (first published in Europe , 15 February 1933, 254-257); "Pour les condamnés de Meerut," L'Inde , 573-577 (first published in Europe , 15 April 1933, 593-597); "Les Resolutions du Congrès National de Toute L'Inde, ô Calcutta" (May 1933), L'Inde , 578-581 (first published in Europe , 15 June 1933, 273-276).

119. Letters from Rolland to Lucien Price, 25 December 1931; to Stefan Zweig, 30 December 1931; to Marcel Lob, 1 January 1932; to Ré Meynard, 17 January 1932; G-RR , 284-287, 287-291, 295, 300-301.

120. Letter from Rolland to Waldo Frank, 26 January 1932, G-RR , 301-302. Also see letters from Rolland to Reginald Reynolds, 12 July 1933; to Eugene Lagot, 4 November 1933; to Saumyendranath Tagore, 14 November 1933; G-RR , 316-318, 320, 321-322. For Romain Rolland's attempts to bridge the communist and Gandhian movements, see "Entretien entre Romain Rolland et S. Tagore," G-RR , 330-332.

121. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 14 April 1932, G-RR , 154-157 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 302-305).

122. Gandhi had attacked socialist theory and practice in his "Adresse au Congrès de Bombay," Europe , 15 March 1935, delivered in September 1934. Also see letter from Gandhi to Madeleine Rolland, 28 March 1935, G-RR , 162-163. For Romain Rolland's reactions, see PRP , 74 n. 1; and

Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 340-343 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 324-327).

123. Romain Rolland, "Acte de reconnaissance d'un homme d'Occident à Gandhi" (February 1939), G-RR , 420-422 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 345-348).

124. See Joan V. Bondurant, The Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), for the connection between Gandhism and the liberal democratic ideologies; Erikson, Gandhi's Truth , for the correspondences between Gandhism and psychoanalysis; and George Woodcock, Mohandas Gandhi (New York, 1971), for the link to anarchist ideas.