1. Le Journal , 11 August 1931. I have changed a few sentences from past to present tense to maintain the consistency that English requires.

2. The last article in the series was 20 August 1931. The closest circulation figure I have for the Journal is 1936:650,000 copies: Bellanger, Histoire , 3:521.

3. On consumerism and the war from a different perspective, see George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 126-56.

4. Robert-Dumas, Idole . Book sales were 27,500 copies.

5. Yrondy, Cocaïne . This book was published in the Secret War series whose book sales per edition are estimated to have run from 15,000 to 20,000 copies.

6. Nadaud and Fage, Armée ; Marcel Montarron, Le poison blanc (Paris: Editions Denoël, 1938), 65; Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: la marque du triangle (Paris: Fayard, 1939); Paul Darlix, Smyrne, dernière escale (Paris: Baudinière, 1930); Lucieto, Livrés . For the most celebrated example see Eric Ambler's Coffin for Dimitrios (1939; reprint, in Intrigue: Four Great Spy Novels of Eric Ambler , New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1943).

7. Or so claimed Paris-Soir , 9 June 1938. Lyon (or Lion), according to the article, had also been an arms dealer.

8. On Lawrence, see Victor Meulenijzer, Le colonel Lawrence agent de l'Intelligence Service (Brussels: Editions Rex, 1938); Pierre Apestéguy, Le roi des sables (Paris, Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1939; 50,000 copies sold); Maurice Laporte, Bouddha contre l'Intelligence Service (Paris: Redier, 1933); Détective , 3 August 1939. On Abd-el-Krim and Arslan, see Henri Massis, Defence of the West , trans. E S. Flint (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1928; originally published as Défense de l'occident [Paris: Plon, 1927; 15,400 copies printed]), 17; Laporte,

Bouddha , 168; Boucard, Les dessous de l'Intelligence Service , 88-95; Jean Marquès-Rivière, L'U.R.S.S. dans le monde (Paris: Payot, 1935; 3,000 copies printed), 239-42; Gustave Gautherot, Le monde communiste (Paris: Editions Spes, 1925), 89; Paul Allard, Les espions de la paix (Paris: Baudineère, 1935), 155-71; Paris-Soir , 3 February 1937 On the criminal international: Jean Bardanne, Stavisky, espion allemand (Paris: Baudinière, 1935) (published in the Secret War series). Henry Champly, The Road to Shanghai: White Slave Traffic in Asia , trans. Warre B. Wells (London: John Long, 1934; originally published as Le chemin de Changhaï [Paris: Tallandier, 1933]).

9. Roger Lamblin, «Protocols» des sages de sion (Paris: Grasset, 1921); D. Petrovsky, La Russie sous les juifs (Paris: Baudinière, 1931); Lucien Pemjean, Vers l'invasion (Paris: Baudinière, 1933); Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Bagatelles pour un massacre (Paris: Editions Denoël, 1937); Léon de Poncins, La mystérieuse internationale juive (Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne 1936); Ilya Ehrenburg, Memoirs: 1921-1941 , trans. Tatania Shebunina (Cleveland:. World Publishing Co., 1963), 31. Norman Cohen has described the popularity of Protocols literature after the war, and has traced earlier Jewish conspiracy stories. Norman Cohen, Warrant for Genocide (New York: Harper, 1967). On earlier stories see Stephen Wilson, Ideology and Experience (Rutherford, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson Press, 1982), 409-21.

10. Boucard, Les dessous de l'Intelligence Service; The Brown Network .

11. AN F7 14713, 3 July 1939; Stéphane Richter, Service secret: de l'école d'espionnage au poteau de Vincennes , trans. Jean Dolaine (Paris: Mignolet and Storz, 1934; originally published in Italian).è

12. Schor, Opinion ; Marrus and Paxton, Jews , chap. 2. For some contemporary examples, see Georges Mauco, Les étrangers en France: étude géographique sur leur rôle dans l'activité économique (Paris: Armand Colin, 1932); Raymond Millet, Trois millions d'étrangers en France: les indésirables, les bienvenus (Paris: Librairie de Médicis, 1938); René Gontier, Vers un racisme franais (Paris: Editions Denoël, 1939).

13. Voilà , 28 October 1933; Le Petit Parisien , 2 April 1935; Détective , 23 September 1937; Allard, Espions , 33-34; Dehilotte, Gestapo (Paris: Payot, 1940), 15; Jean Bardanne, L'espionne du Guépéou (Paris: Baudinière, 1937), 97-100 (the character Gruntz: French police informer, German spy, Moscow agent, and Jewish; this book was published in the Secret War series); Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: l'homme à abattre (Paris: Fayard, 1934), 94-101 (the character Emil Seubert; the book sold 42,350 copies and was made into a movie); Yrondy, Cocaïne , 144-45; Cazal, La guerre! La guerre! Roman de demain (Paris: Tallandier, 1939), 1:177-78. On the potentially dangerous impact of such stories and reporting on antiforeigner sentiment, see Schor's comprehensive study, Opinion , 653, 704. I would argue for a more complex response: see the final section of this chapter. As for the impact of such literature on official policy, there is no way of demonstrating a causal connection nor even reason to believe one necessarily existed given the material security officials had them-selves accumulated on foreign intrigues. Influence may, in fact, have run in the reverse Robert-Dumas, for example, appears to have been a French counterintelligence agent: Paillole, Services , 187.

14. Serge de Chessin, La nuit qui vient de l'orient (Paris: Hachette, 1929); Sergey Petrovich Melgounov, The Red Terror in Russia (London: J. M. Dent, 1926; published in France as La terreur rouge en Russie [Paris: Payot, 1927]); Joseph Douillet, Moscou sans voiles: neuf ans de travail au pays des soviets (Paris: Editions Spes, 1928).

15. Charles Lucieto, La guerre des cerveaux: la vierge rouge du Kremlin (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1927); Charles Lucieto, La guerre des cerveaux: le mystère de Monte Carlo (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1932), quoted 69-70, 49-50; Lucieto, Livrés . Next to the frontispiece of the second work the following sales (or printing) figures are given respectively for the other two: 110,000, 100,000.è

16. Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: le masque de vitriol (Paris: Fayard, 1935); Bardanne, Espionne , 19-24; Marc Le Guillerme, Goldman-Meyer, de Barcelone (Paris: Baudinière, 1938); Maurice Laporte, Espions rouges: les dessous de l'espionage soviétique en France (Paris: Librairie de la Revue Franaise, 1929), 48-49; Roman Goul, Les maîtres de la Tchéka: histoire de la terreur en U.R.S.S., 1917-1938 (Paris: Editions de France, 1938), 93-94, 166-68. Laporte was an ex-Communist. Goul (Gul) was a respected White Russian émigré writer.

17. Jean Bardanne, Documents secrets et faux passeports (Paris: Baudinière, 1938), 23-29. This book was published in the Secret War series.

18. AN F7 14689, May 1935 (Hanau file). Bardanne's real name was Georges B. and in 1935 the police were investigating his connections with a press agency suspected of collusion in speculation against the franc. Nevertheless in 1940-1941, a Jean Bardanne was negotiating for the release of captured British special operations agents until, as we are told, "sheer weight of numbers ran him out of money and he was arrested himself": Foot, SOE in France , 174.

19. Dehilotte, Gestapo , 207; Bardanne, Espionne , 48-49.

20. Malraux, Voie , 16.

21. Maurice Dekobra, La gondole aux chimères (Paris: Baudinière, 1926), quoted 175.

22. Hill, Go Spy , 74, 77; Andrew, Secret Service , 215-16.è

23. Pierre Boileau and Thomas Narcejac, Le roman policier (Paris: Payot, 1964); Fereydoun Hoveyda, Histoire du roman policier (Paris: Pavillon, 1965); Jean-Jacques Tourteau, D'Arsène Lupin à San-Antonio: le roman policier franais de 1900 à 1970 (Paris: Maison Mame, 1970); A. E. Murch, The Development of the Detective Novel (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1968). How far the correspondence between the two genres can be taken, however, is questionable. Before the war the French were also focusing considerably upon a spy threat, yet the spy novel was at best still in its infancy. Nor did the interwar spy novel replicate the puzzle-solving devices of much of interwar detective stories (or even the psychological realism of Simenon). See also Boileau and Narcejac, Roman , 193-94, on fundamental differences between the two genres.

24. The title of the series was "Collection de mémoires, études, et documents pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre mondiale?' Payot was the publisher. I have anglicized the titles.

25. Crozier, Mes missions . An earlier version was published under Crozier's pseudonum, Pierre Desgranges: Pierre Desgranges and [Lieutenant] de

Belleval, En mission chez l'ennemi (Paris: Redier, 1930). Part of the story of his secretary comes from this earlier version.

26. Marthe Richard, Mon destin de femme (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1974).

27. Georges Ladoux, Marthe Richard: espionne au service de la France (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1932).

28. Richard tells a more complete and contradictory talc—including initial suspicions by Ladoux that she was a foreign agent—of her recruitment into French intelligence, not the last time she confuses readers about what really happened.

29. Marthe Richer, Ma vie d'espionne: au service de la France (Paris: Editions de France, 1935). The author published under both this name and that of Richard, the one usually attributed to her.

30. Ladoux, Chasseurs . The cover also carried at the top, "Mémoires de guerre secrète." Ladoux, Souvenirs .

31. See the Crozier files in SHAT 7N 926, especially 27 October 1915, 7 December 1915, 5 January 1916, 29 January 1916.

32. MI 25345, 12 March 1918; L'Oeuvre , 20 March 1918; Le Temps , 20 March 1918, 10 May 1919; Le Petit Parisien , 31 January 1919; Bellanger, Histoire , 3:431-33.

33. For an example of the attacks on her life story, and one that refers to others, see Alphonse Boudard, La fermeture (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1986). Paris police officials have told me that their archives do not include a dossier on Richard.

34. Jean Violan, Dans l'air et dans la boue: mes missions de guerre (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1933), 219. Violan was the pen name of Davrichevii (or Davrichewy). P.-Louis Rivière, who worked with French intelligence during the war and was in a position to know the truth, refers to Ladoux's book on Richard as "a pleasant blending of fact and fiction designed above all to amuse the reader." Rivière, Centre , 63.è

35. For an example of this kind of writing see Jean Norton Cru, Témoins: essai d'analyse et de critique des souvenirs de combattants édités en franais de 1915 à 1928 (Paris: Les Etincelles, 1929).

36. On this point see also Boileau and Narcejac, Roman , 194-95.è

37. Allard, Espions ; Robert Boucard, Les dessous de l'espionnage franais (Paris: Editions de France, 1934). The movie appears to have been based on the Ladoux edition

38. Marthe Richard, Espions de guerre et de paix (1920-1938) (Paris: Editions de France, 1938); Marthe Richard, Mes dernières missions secrètes: Espagne 1936-1938 (Paris: Editions de France, 1939).

39. In addition to the two cited above is a work Crozier wrote under the name of Pierre Desgranges, Au service des marchands d'armes (Paris: Redier, 1934).

40. Allard, Espions , 15-16.

41. Joseph Kessel, Mermoz (Paris: Gallimard, 1938), 124-25, 143, 160, 166, 178-79, 201-2.

42. The best example is Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Night Flight , trans. Stuart

Gilbert, and Wind, Sand, and Stars , trans. Lewis Galantière, both in Airman's Odyssey (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984). The two stories were originally published respectively as Vol de nuit (Paris: Gallimard, 1931) and Terre des hommes (Paris: Gallimard, 1939). See also Bùi Xuân Bào, Naissance d'un héroisme nouveau dans les lettres franaises de l'entre-deux-guerres: aviation et littérature (Paris: Faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines de l'Université de Paris, 1961); Robert Wohl, "Par la voie des airs: l'entrée de l'aviation dans le monde des lettres françaises, 1909-1939," Le Mouvement Social 145 (December 1988): 41-64. The ties between the mystique of flying and business needs were also noted by Geoffry Stone in a 1932 review of Vol de nuit cited in Bào, Naissance , 201.

43. Kessel, Mermoz , 293-304, 400.

44. Ibid.; Yves Courrière, Joseph Kessel, ou sur la piste du lion (Paris: Plon, 1985), 496. For a different interpretation of the book, see Wohl, "Par la vole," 55.

45. For a fascinating discussion of mystique and technology in the German context, see Peter Fritzsche, A Nation of Fliers: German Aviation and the Popular Imagination (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), Chapter 4.

46. Mermoz, Mes vols (Paris: Flammarion, 1937), 130-31.

47. See the wonderful account in Seagrave, Epic .

48. Violan, L'air , 26-27; Ladoux, Marthe , 31; Crozier, Missions , 19.

49. Dekobra, Madonna , 35.

50. Ibid., 306.

51. Paul Morand, Flèche d'Orient (Paris: Gallimard, 1932).

52. Joseph Kessel, Les nuits de Sibérie (Paris: Flammarion, 1928); Courrière, Kessel , 142-58 (quoted 155).è

53. Roger Vercel, Capitaine Conan (Paris: Albin Michel, 1934), 91, 140, 145, 148, 210. For an extended discussion of the novel see Maurice Rieuneau, Guerre et révolution dans le roman franais de 1919-1939 (Klincksieck, 1974), 349-60.

54. Richard, writing under the name of Richer, Vie , 4. It is interesting that one of the great pilot heroes from the war, Georges Guynemer, has been described thus: "Il tuait sans merci et semblait y prendre plaisir; il tenait la comptabilité de ses victoires avec la précision d'un professionel du gros gibier." Wohl, "Par la voie," 47. Fritzsche makes the same point in Nation , 96.

55. Ladoux, Souvenirs .

56. Richard, Espions , 61-62.

57. The old storytelling urges died hard and never disappeared altogether, returning in her 1974 memoirs. See Destin , 292-319.

58. Allard, Espions , 24.

59. Richard, Espions , 168.

60. Ladoux, Marthe , 85-86.

61. Teddy Legrand, Les sept têtes du dragon vert (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1933). Estimated sales were between 5,000 and 10,000.

62. Détective , 6 February, pp. 4, 13; 13 February, pp. 4, 5.

63. Ibid., 25 November 1937, p. 2; 20 January 1938, p. 4; 3 February 1938, p. 5.

64. Le Journal , 17 February 1930; Le Matin , 29 September 1937. Le Matin's circulation was about 700,000 in 1920, down to about 500,000 by the mid 1930s, and 320,000 by the end of the thirties: Bellanger, Histoire , 3:311, 519.

65. Le Journal , 1 February 1930; Le Petit Parisien , 2 February 1930; Le Matin , 6 December 1938; Le Journal 26 September 1937; Paris-Soir , 25 September 1937.

66. Paris-Soir , 28 October 1938. Some earlier references to Schulz can be found in Robert G. L. Waite, Vanguard of Nazism (New York: Norton, 1969), 45, 242, 254. The article referred to him as Schultz. His name also turned up several years earlier as one of the presumed perpetrators in the Jacob kidnapping: Le Petit Journal , 23 March 1935; Le Journal , 2 April 1935.

67. Police Magazine , 10 October 1937, pp. 8-10.

68. De Jong, Fifth ; Paul Allard, Quand Hitler espionne la France (Paris: Editions de France, 1934). See also Allard, Espions , and La guerre des espions (Paris: Flammarion, 1936). The newspaper articles are from Match , 16 February 1939; Paris-Soir , 31 December 1938. Allard also published articles in Détective .

69. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:461.

70. Le Petit Parisien , 14 June, 1932. According to Paris-Soir , 4 November 1934, three trains were actually dynamited.

71. An earlier trial had been conducted in Austria in the summer of 1932, but it covered only the first two of Matuska's attempts.

72. Kiss had died several years before the dynamitings. Debates about Kiss, Matuska, and hypnotism thus raised the question as well whether suggestions could be implanted in advance in the mind of a subject. For a good discussion of late-nineteenth-century fascination with the criminological implications of hypnotism, see Ruth Harris, Murders and Madness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), chap. 5.

73. Paris-Soir , 4-21 November 1934 (quoted at length 4 November); Détective , 19 November 1931. Le Petit Parisien provided a more sober account of the trial, although here too the accent was on the strange personality of Matuska and not on the ideological possibilities embedded in the case. For an example of courtroom and press theatrics in France, extending back to the Belle Epoque, see Edward Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

74. Paris-Soir , 4 October 1937.

75. Poretsky, People , especially chaps. 9, 10; Chenevier, Combes , 37-48; press accounts in Paris-Soir, Le Petit Parisien, Le Journal .

76. See also Le Petit Parisien , 3 October 1937 on the Reiss murder and its relation to other recent stories: "Magnificent scenario, moreover, for a film of mystery and blood. . . ."

77. APP BA 1667, 3 May 1937, 6 August 1937, 13 August 1937, 24 August 1937, 26 August 1937.

78. APP BA 1654, 13 February 1930.

79. Grégoire Bessedovsky, Oui, j'accuse: au service des soviets (Paris: Redier, 1930), 39-40, 45-46.

80. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 5 March 1930.

81. Albert Londres, The Road to Buenos Ayres , trans. Eric Sutton (New York:

Blue Ribbon Books, 1928; originally published as Le chemin de Buenos-Aires [Paris: Albin Michel, 1927]), 62-63, 134-36 (quoted).

82. Albert Londres, Les comitadjis, ou le terrorisme dans les Balkans (Paris: Al-bin Michel, 1932), especially 78-79, 168; Jacques Deval, Rives pacifiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1937), 142-44 (see chap. 4); Jean Bommart, The Chinese Fish , trans. Milton Waldman (London: Longmans Green and Co., 1935; originally published as Le poisson chinois [Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1934]); Bommart, Hélène , and La dame de Valparaiso: les débuts du poisson chinois (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1940). Part of Londres's Comitadjis appeared in the Petit Parisien . On Londres's life: Paul Mousset, Albert Londres, ou l'aventure du grand reportage (Paris: Grasset, 1972); Pierre Assouline, Albert Londres: vie et mort d'un grand reporter, 1884-1932 (Paris: Balland, 1989).

83. Edward R. Tannenbaum, 1900: The Generation Before the Great War (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977), 237. Tannenbaum's chapter 6 on the evolution of popular culture at the end of the nineteenth century is perceptive throughout. See also Richard Terdiman, Discourse/Counter-Discourse: The Theory and Practice of Symbolic Resistance in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), chap. 2.

84. Le Journal , 26 September 1937.

85. Bommart, Fish , 12-14.

86. Michael B. Palmer, Des petits journaux aux grands agences: naissance du journalisme moderne (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1983), 23-32, 114, 171, 180-81, 253; Francine Amaury, Histoire du plus grand quotidien de la Troisième République: Le Petit Parisien, 1876-1944 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1972); Bellanger, Histoire , 3:140-43, 220-22, 275-81, 295-316; Tannenbaum, 1900 , 228-37; Madeleine Varin d'Ainvelle, La presse en France: genèse et évolution de ses fonctions psycho-sociales (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1965), 201-25; Berenson, Trial , 211-17.

87. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:270-74. For these affairs see chapter 1.

88. L'Eclair , 14 December 1890, "AFFAIRE SELIVERSTOFF/COMMENT J'AI FAIT EVADER PADLEWSKI" by Georges De Labruyère.

89. Le Matin , 12 February 1909 (quoted), 17 February 1909 (on torture).

90. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:449-60; Amaury, Histoire , 101, 280-91, 420.

91. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:397, 122-30, 280, 476.

92. Ibid., 3:460.

93. Paris-Soir , 26 May 1938.

94. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:524-25.

95. Ibid., 527, 597-602; Catherine Maisonneuve, "Détective" (Mémoire de l'Université de droit, économie, et sciences sociales, Paris II, 1974), 5, 9-11, 64, 70-71; Courrière, Kessel , 330-34, 415; Marcel Montarron, Tout ce joli monde (Paris: Table Ronde, 1965).

96. Le Matin , 13 November 1937.

97. Paris-Soir , 23 February 1938.

98. Accounts of her life in newspapers vary. A good corrective is Grey, Général , 132-49.

99. Paris-Soir , 3 October 1937.

100. AA Botschaft Madrid, AZ: 700-709, Frankreich 1937-1940, December 1939.

101. Montarron, Tout , 39.

102. Le Petit Parisien , 12-17 December 1938.

103. For an example of an earlier argument for control, see Robert J. Young, In Command of France: French Foreign Policy and Military Planning, 1933-1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978).