1. R. L. Sherlock, Man as a Geological Agent (London: Witherby, 1922), 21, 14-15, 324-28.

2. Ibid., 35-38.

3. According to John Barr, Derelict Britain (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), 48, there were at the date of publication about 30,000 badly pitted acres in England and Wales.

4. Ibid., 53-54.

5. Reprinted in Life in Cornwall in the Late Nineteenth Century , ed. R. M. Barton (Truro: Barton, 1972), 45.

6. A. C. Todd and Peter Laws, The Industrial Archaeology of Cornwall (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), 160.

7. Raphael Samuel, "Mineral Workers," in Miners, Quarrymen and Salt-workers , ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), 5, 11-12; Barrie Trinder, The Making of the Industrial Landscape (London: Dent, 1982), 241.

8. Penny Magazine 246 (1835): 47; 260 (1836): 158; testimony of Thomas Tancred before the Midland Mining Commission, BPP 13 (1843): iv-v, quoted in Michael Reed, The Landscape of Britain (London: Routledge, 1990) 322, who calls that part of South Staffordshire one of the most "desolate and dehumanized industrial landscapes in Britain."

9. "Great Landslip at Dunkirk," Northwich and Knutsford Guardian (11 December 1880), 4; Albert Calvert, Salt and the Salt Industry (London: Pitman, 1919), 104, 113-15; K. L. Wallwork, "Subsidence in the Mid-Cheshire Industrial Area," Geographical Journal 122 (1956): 48; Sherlock, Man as a Geological Agent , 150; Chambers Journal , 5th series, 5 (1888): 750, 758-60; Builder 39 (1880 ii): 715-16; Illustrated London News 78 (1881): 11-12, describes the subsidence and supplies illustrations; Joseph Dickson, Inspector of Mines, noted in a report to the home secretary in 1873, BPP , Report on Landslips in Salt Districts, 53 (1873): 593, that in or about 1533 a treed hill had sunk and turned into a pond.

10. "Great Landslip," Northwich and Knutsford Guardian (11 December 1880), 4.

11. T. W. Freeman, H. B. Rodgers, and R. H. Kinvig, Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Isle of Man (London: Nelson, 1966), 175.

12. Sherlock, Man as a Geological Agent , 146-50.

13. Wallwork, "Subsidence in Mid-Cheshire," 46-50; F. G. Bell, "Salt and Subsidence in Cheshire, England," Engineering Geology 9 (1975): 240-44; BPP , Report on Landslips, 644.

14. BPP , Report on Landslips, 594.

15. Sherlock, Man as a Geological Agent , 149-50.

16. BPP , SC on Brine Pumping, 11 (1890-91): 235, 275.

17. BPP , Report on Landslips, 295.

18. Ibid., 644-47. William Stanley Jevons had caught the attention of politicians and the informed public with his warning about the depletion of Britain's coal supply when he published The Coal Question in 1865. See G. N. Von Tunzelmann, "Exhaustibility of British Coal in Long-Run Perspective," in Human Impact on the Environment: Ancient Roots, Current Challenges , ed. Judith Jacobsen and John Firor (Boulder, Colo.: West View Press, 1992).

19. The Leblanc process decomposes salt (sodium chloride) with sulfuric acid; the Solvay process decomposes ammonium bicarbonate and sodium chloride (in the form of brine) together as a first step.

20. Brian Didsbury, "Cheshire Saltworkers," in Miners , ed. Samuel, 180-84.

21. Calvert, Salt and the Salt Industry , 120.

22. Ibid., 121; Bell, "Salt and Subsidence," 246.

23. Bell, "Salt and Subsidence," 246-47. As L. Dudley Stamp warned in The Land of Britain: Its Use and Misuse (London: Longmans, Green 1948), 235, this solution is not necessarily a total and permanent one.

24. K. L. Wallwork, "Some Problems of Subsidence and Land Use in the Mid-Cheshire Industrial Area," Geographical Journal 126 (1960): 195-98; Freeman, Rodgers, and Kinvig, Lancashire , 175.

25. See Raymond Gemmell, Colonization of Industrial Wasteland (London: Arnold, 1977), 11, and D. W. F. Hardie, A History of the Chemical Industry in Widnes (Birmingham: I.C.I., 1950), 127.

26. Sherlock, Man as a Geological Agent , 14-15.

27. Ibid., 15-16, 151-52.

28. This is not to suggest that the problem has disappeared: see Ian Douglas, "Geomorphology and Urban Development in the Manchester Area," in The Geomorphology of North-West England , ed. R. H. Johnson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), 347-52, and Howard Humphries et al., Subsidence in Norwich (HMSO, 1993).

29. See especially A. E. Musson, "Industrial Motive Power in the United Kingdom, 1800-1870," EHR , 2d series, 29 (1976): 415-39. According to Todd and Laws, Cornwall , 13, there were still 300 water-powered mills operating in Cornwall in 1880.

30. W. J. Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries: A History , vol. 1 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 11-30; Ian McNeil, ed., An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology (London: Routledge, 1990), 223, 470-72. Samuel, "Mineral Workers," 42, mentions that two steam ("Goliath") cranes were used in 1875 at a sandstone quarry near Bradford.

31. BPP , Report of the Departmental Committee upon erionethshire Slate Mines, 35 (1895): 435.

32. Henry Tomkins, The Pavements of London (London: n.p., 1874), 3-16; James Winter, London's Teeming Streets, 1830-1914 (London: Routledge, 1993), 36-40, 118-34; H. Hamilton, "The Granite Industry," in Further Studies in Industrial Organization , ed. M. P. Fogarty (London: Methuen, 1948), 181-82.

33. Alexander Mackie, Aberdeenshire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911), 87

34. An aerial photograph is reproduced in Robert Smith, City of Granite (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989), 41. "Muckle" means huge here. Aberdeen natives are noted for their respect for the adage, "Many a little makes a mickle, and many a mickle makes a muckle."

35. William Diack, Rise and Progress of the Granite Industry in Aberdeen (Aberdeen: Institute of Quarrying, 1950), 32.

36. Ibid., 31.

37. Ibid., 45.

38. T. Donnelly, "The Rubislaw Granite Quarries, 1750-1939," Industrial Archaeology 11 (1974): 226-27, 231. In Engineering 21 (1876): 267, there is an engraving of an American-made Steam Stone Cutter, displayed at the Philadelphia Exposition, which needed to be moved to the quarry face on rails.

39. Jacquetta Hawkes, A Land (London: Cresset Press, 1951), 109-10.

40. Hamilton, "Granite Industry," in Further Studies , ed. Fogarty, 182-83, 188.

41. Judd Alexander, In Defense of Garbage (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993), 5-10, 154.

42. N. J. Coppin and A. D. Bradshaw, Quarry Reclamation (London: Mining Journal Books, 1982), 12-15.

43. Barr, Derelict Britain , 57-58. John Blunden and Graham Turner, Critical Countryside (London: BBC, 1985), 88, comment on the paradox that disused industrial workings and quarries "now provide inviting habitats for many plants and animals ousted from their more traditional rural haunts"; see also Lyndis Cole, "Urban Nature Conservation," in Conservation in Perspective , ed. A. Warren and F. B. Goldsmith (Chichester: Wiley, 1983), 273.

44. Dov Nir, Man, A Geomorphological Agent (Jerusalem: Keter, 1983), 73; T. U. Hartwright, "Development of Gravel-Pit Lakes for Leisure Purposes," in Minerals and the Environment , ed. M. J. Jones (Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 1975), 333-34.

45. J. G. Kohl, England and Wales (1844; reprint, New York: Kelly, 1968), 61.

46. J. E. Cairnes, "Co-operation in the Slate Quarries of North Wales," Macmillan's Magazine 11 (1864): 182.

47. Trevor Thomas, "Wales: Land, Mines, and Quarries," Geographical Review 46 (1956): 80. Peter Lund Simmonds, Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances , 3d ed. (London: Hardwicke and Bogue, 1876), 420, noted that a French patent had been taken out for pulverizing slate refuse to make artificial stone.

48. Stamp, Land of Britain , 236.

49. Sherlock, Man as a Geological Agent , 52.

50. Cairnes, "Co-operation in the Slate Quarries," 182-83.

51. D C. Davies, A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying (London: Crosby Lockwood, 1878), 25, 158, 165-67.

52. E. M. Bridges, Surveying Derelict Land (Oxford: Clarenden, 1987), 34.

53. M. J. Lewis, ed., The Slate Quarries of North Wales in 1873 (Plas Tan-y-Bwlch: n.p., 1987), 19.

54. John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1970 (London: Methuen, 1983), 27, makes the point that this substitution of brick and slate for vernacular materials brought monotony and uniformity to towns and cities but also tended to make houses warmer, dryer, and healthier.

55. Merfyn Jones, "Y Chwarelwyr: The Slate of Quarrymen of North Wales," in Miners , ed. Samuel, 102.

56. Lewis, Slate Quarries of North Wales , 88-89.

57. Jean Lindsay, A History of the North Wales Slate Industry (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1974), 106.

58. Thomas, "Wales," 70; Lindsay, History , 92.

59. Lindsay, History , 157.

60. Davies, Treatise on Slate , 127.

61. Francis Klingender, Art and the Industrial Revolution , ed. and rev. Arthur Elton (Chatham: Adams and MacKay, 1968), 95, reproduces Crane's dramatic lithograph with commentary.

62. Penrhyn quarrymen testified that often the tramway tracks were not set well back from the gallery edge, as the picture suggests, but could be so close to the edge that stones sometimes fell off the wagons and injured workers below: BPP , SC Minutes of Evidence, Committee of Inquiry on Stone, Limestone, Slate and Clay Quarrying, 73 (1893-94): 57.