1. See E. H. Gombrich, "Experiment and Experience in the Arts," in The Image and the Eye: Further Studies in the Art of Pictorial Representation (Oxford: Phaidon, 1982), 215.

2. Hans Reichenbach, Laws, Modalities, and Counterfactuals (previously published as Nomological Statements and Admissible Operations , 1954), now with a Foreword by Wesley C. Salmon (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1976), 1.

3. Reichenbach, Laws, Modalities, and Counterfactuals , 126. See Hans Reichenbach, The Direction of Time , ed. Maria Reichenbach (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956).

4. Wesley C. Salmon, Scientific Explanation and the Causal Structure of the World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 17; see 276-279.

5. See Bas C. van Fraassen, Laws and Symmetry (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989), parts I-II.

6. For a brief discussion, see Joseph Margolis, "Métaphysique radicale," Archives de Philosophie LIV (1991).

7. See Maria Reichenbach, "Introduction to the English Edition," in Hans Reichenbach, The Theory of Relativity and A Priori Knowledge , trans. Maria Reichenbach (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965).

8. Salmon, Scientific Explanation and the Causal Structure of the World , 18; see 135-139.

9. Salmon, Scientific Explanation and the Causal Structure of the World , 137-139, 277-278. See, also, Wolfgang Stegmüller, "Toward a Rational Reconstruction of Kant's Metaphysics of Experience," in Collected Papers on Epistemology, Philosophy of Science and History of Philosophy , vol. 1, trans. in part by B. Martini, partly rev. by W. Wohlheuter (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1977), particularly 129-131; and "The Problem of Induction: Hume's Challenge and the Contemporary Answer," vol. 2, particularly 68-69.

10. See Rudolf Carnap, "Intellectual Autobiography," in The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap , ed. Paul Arthur Schilpp (La Salle: Open Court, 1963), 71-77; also "Replies and Systematic Expositions," in Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap , 966-988. break

11. Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy , trans. David Carr (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 5.

12. Gail Soffer, Husserl and the Question of Relativism (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1991), 147, 148; compare the whole of ch. 5. In the same spirit, Soffer shows that the question of relativism occupied Husserl through the whole of his work. The difficulty is that Husserl never satisfactorily justified the bifurcation of the "natural" and "phenomenological" methods in the context in which the existence of the inquiring subject remains (must remain) one and the same (although there are temptations on Husserl's part to avoid the full import of the admission).

13. See Edmund Husserl, The Phenomeneology of Internal Time-Consciousness , trans. J. S. Churchill (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1950).

14. See Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology , part II, particularly §14.

15. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception , trans. Colin Smith (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962), 170.

16. For a hint of such a conception, see Robert Sokolowski, Husserlian Meditations: How Words Project Things (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1974), ch. 3.

17. See Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Visible and the Invisible , ed. Claude Lefort, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968).

18. Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology , 17-18.

19. Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology , 18.

20. See Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences , in translation (New York: Random House, 1970), ch. 10.

21. See, for instance, Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punishment: The Birth of the Prison , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1978).

22. Jürgen Habermas, "A Review of Gadamer's Truth and Method ," in Understanding and Social Inquiry , ed. Fred R. Dallmayr and Thomas A. McCarthy (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1977); incorporated in Jürgen Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences , trans. Shierry Weber Nicholsen and Jerry A. Stark (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988). (Further references are to the Logic of the Social Sciences volume.)

23. See Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences , 118-119.

24. Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences , 171-172. See Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method , trans. from 2d ed. Garrett Barden and John Cumming (New York: Seabury Press, 1975), 420 (cited by Habermas).

25. Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences , 153-154.

26. Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences , 172.

27. See Gadamer, Truth and Method , 153-214.

28. Hans-Georg Gadamer, "The Universality of the Hermeneutical Problem," in Philosophical Hermeneutics , trans. and ed. David E. Linge (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1976), 3.

29. Gadamer, "The Universality of the Hermeneutic Problem," 7-8.

30. Gadamer, "The Universality of the Hermeneutic Problem," 9. break

31. Gadamer, "The Universality of the Hermeneutic Problem," 8.

32. Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences , 173.

33. Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences , 174.

34. Gadamer, Truth and Method , 115, 264.

35. Hans-Georg Gadamer, "On the Scope and Function of Hermeneutical Reflection," in Philosophical Hermeneutics , ed. David E. Linge, 26, 28, 30.

36. Perhaps the most perspicuous discussion by Habermas appears in Jürgen Habermas, "Discourse Ethics: Notes on a Program of Philosophical Justification," in Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action , trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), particularly 76-94. See, also, Karl-Otto Apel, "The A Priori of the Communication Community and the Foundations of Ethics," in Towards a Transformation of Philosophy , trans. Glyn Adey and David Frisby (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980).

37. Gadamer, Truth and Method , 254.

38. Gadamer, Truth and Method , 254, 256, 257.

39. Gadamer, Truth and Method , 247-253.

40. It is possible that Gadamer believes that any normative vision is "classical" if it is only species-wide, inclusive of mankind, in a historically pertinent sense. This would bring Gadamer close to Marx's line of argument (though not to Marx's values). See, for instance, Karl Marx, "On the Jewish Question," in Karl Marx: Early Writings , trans. and ed. Tom Bottomore (New York: McGraw-Hitt, 1964). Gadamer never pursues such a strategy. It would be too teleological for him. It might also permit (or require) norms that, in his own opinion, were incompatible with the humane values of Greece. There is no obvious resolution to Gadamer's difficulty. (Many, in fact, would deny that there is a difficulty.)

41. Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology , trans. David Carr (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 143.

42. See Joseph Margolis, "Les trois sortes d'universalité dans hermeneutique de H. G. Gadamer," Archives de Philosophie LIII (1990).

43. See Alasdair MacIntyre, Beyond Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory , 2d ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984) and Three Rival Models of Moral Enquiry (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1990).