1. Tournefort alone among academicians kept up-to-date with botanical literature; many academicians came to their studies of plants from other disciplines altogether. The Marchants looked on new botanical treatises as sources of information about particular plants rather than as models for a new style of studying plants. See chap. 8, n. 29, above, on how little Ray influenced the Academy.

2. Canguilhem, preface to Delaporte, Second règne, 8.

3. The texts that academicians produced on the subject exist in manuscript and in publications. The minutes of the Academy record the papers of Perrault, Mariotte and Duclos plus the experiments that Marchant demonstrated: AdS, Reg., 1: 35 (15 Jan. 1667); 4: 67v-68r, 71v-77v, 79r-90r, 92v-99r (23, 30 June, 7, 14, 21 July 1668); AdS, Carton 1667-1699, pochette 1668. In 1679 Mariotte published his Végétation, a treatise on the nutrition and growth of plants that incorporated his earlier research on the circulation of sap, and a year later Perrault published his Circulation, on the circulation of sap, which borrowed heavily from Mariotte's experimental data and also contained Duclos's rebuttal. All three academicians revised their opinions between 1668 and 1680. La Hire addressed the problem in the late 1670s and the early 1690s: AdS, Reg., 8: 218r-v; Mémoires, 10: 317-19; Histoire, 2: 184-86. The histories of the Academy by its first two permanent secretaries report the summer debate: Historia, 62-66, and Histoire, 1: 58-63.

4. Salomon-Bayet, L'institution de la science, 87. Davy de Virville, "De l'influence des idées préconçues," 119, distinguishes between preconceived and directive ideas.

5. Canguilhem, "Role of Analogies and Models," 507, 516.

6. Ibid., 513.

7. Hesse, Models and Analogies, 81-85.

8. Ibid., 86-91.

9. That is, when "it has not been possible to observe or to produce experimentally a large number of instances in which sets of characters are differently associated": ibid., 76.

10. Ibid., 76-77.

11. Canguilhem, "Role of Analogies and Models," 513.

12. Hesse, Models and Analogies, 79-80.

13. Canguilhem, "Role of Analogies and Models," 517.

14. Hesse, Models and Analogies, 162.

15. Canguilhem, "Role of Analogies and Models," 515.

16. Hesse, Models and Analogies, 163.

17. Canguilhem, "Role of Analogies and Models," 508, 513, 516.

18. Canguilhem, Connaissance de la vie, 22-23.

19. Delaporte, Second règne, 18.

20. I am grateful to Shirley A. Roe for this quotation.

21. Canguilhem, "Role of Analogies and Models," 514.

22. Harvey, The Circulation of the Blood, 187.

23. Ibid., 132.

24. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 58-59.

25. Pagel, Harvey's Biological Ideas, 25-26, 43, 51-58.

26. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 61.

27. See Riolan's letters in Harvey, The Circulation of the Blood; Riolan, Manuel, 706-49; articles in DSB on Harvey and Riolan; Pagel, Harvey's Biological Ideas; Berthier, "Le mécanisme cartésien," 3: 33-44.

28. Berthier, "Le mécanisme cartésien," 3: 51. Descartes, Discours, pt. 5.

29. Tardy, Cours de medecine; Chaillou, Mouvement du sang; Martet, Abbregé ... ensemble de la circulation du sang; Betbeder (who plundered Chaillou and Martet), Questions nouvelles; Guiffart, Lettre, preface; Pagel, Harvey's Biological Ideas; Berthier, "Le mécanisme cartésien," 2: 53-55; DSB, 10: 477.

30. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 58-59.

31. Ibid., 51.

32. Ibid., 39.

33. Salomon-Bayet, L'institution de la science, 86.

34. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 13, 31, and The Circulation of the Blood, 145, 172.

35. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 94, 101, and The Circulation of the Blood, 118-19, 150-51, 152, 169.

36. Pagel, Harvey's Biological Ideas, 56.