1. U.S. Geological Survey, "Memo, 1 July 1962" vertical file, "Maxey Flats: Correspondence and Phone Conversations," (Louisville: U.S. Department of the Interior, USGS, Water Resources Division, 1962); J. Neel, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal , Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 94th Congress, Second Session, 23 February, 12 March, and 6 April 1976 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), 258; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, LLRWD . See also A. Weiss and P. Columbo, Evaluation of Isotope Migration--Land Burial , NUREG/CR-1289 BNL-NUREG-51143 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), 5.

2. D. Montgomery and R. Blanchard, "Radioactivity Measurement in the Environment at the Maxey Flats Waste Burial Site," in Management of Low-Level Radioactive Waste , vol. 2, ed. M. Carter et al. (New York: Pergamon, 1979), 784; U.S. Congress, LLR WD , 28; G. Meyer, Preliminary Data on the Occurrence of Transuranium Nuclides in the Environment at the Radioactive Waste Burial Site, Maxey Flats, Kentucky (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs, February 1976), x.

3. P. Zurer, "U.S. Charts Plans for Nuclear Waste Disposal," Chemical and Engineering News 61, no. 27 (July 1983): 20-38.

4. R. Kasperson and S. Abdollahzadeh, Distributional Equity Problems at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Facility , NWPO-SE-009-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, July 1988), 13.

5. USGS, "Memo, 1 July 1962"; G. Meyer, "Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site: Status Report," unpublished report (Advanced Science and Technology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975), 9; Pacific Northwest Laboratory et al., Research Program at Maxey Flats and Consideration of Other Shallow Land Burial Sites , NUREG/CR-1832 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), esp. v, I-1, I-2, I-14, IV-6, IV-9, V-7ff.

6. L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach (New York: John Wiley, 1989), 1026.

7. H. Kunreuther et al., "A Decision-Process Perspective on Risk and Policy Analysis," in Resolving Locational Conflict , ed. L. Lake (New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1987), 261.

8. T. Rasmussen, "Methods of Hazard Analysis and Nuclear Safety Engineering," in The Three Mile Island Nuclear Accident , ed. T. Moss and D. Sills (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1981).

9. U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada , DOE/RW-0073, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-280; hereafter cited as: U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca.

10. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-292.

11. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-12 and 6-25.

12. J. L. Younker, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, C. C. Herrington, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, and L. R. Rickertsen, Report of Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8000 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 1992), E-11; hereafter cited as: Younker, Andrews, et al.

13. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-11.

14. J. L. Younker, S. L. Albrecht, W. J. Arabasz, J. H. Bell, F. W. Cambray, S. W. Carothers, J. I. Drever, J. T. Einaudi, D. E. French, K. V. Hodges, R. H. Jones, D. K. Kreamer, W. G. Pariseau, T. A. Vogel, T. Webb, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, L. R. Rickertsen, J. M. Boak, and J. R. Stockey, Report of the Peer Review Panel on the Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8001 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 1992), B-2; hereafter cited as: Younker, Albrecht, et al.

15. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-5.

16. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-11.

17. K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1991), 133-145; hereafter cited as: Risk .

18. L. Libby et al., "Evaluation of Great Deserts of the World for Perpetual Radwaste Storage," The Environmental Professional 4, no. 2 (1982): 111-128 (Item 122 in US DOE, DE89005394).

19. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking on the Storage and Disposal of Nuclear Waste (Waste Confidence Rulemaking) , PR-50, 51 (44FR61372) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), I-25.

20. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking , IV-1.

21. See K. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , 49ff.

22. F. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis for a Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAND83-7475 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), i, v-vi, 7, 47.

23. Y. Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code for the Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project , SAND85-0602 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), i, 1.

24. C. St. John, Thermal Analysis of Spent Fuel Disposal in Vertical Emplacement Boreholes in a Welded Tuff Repository , SAND84-7207 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), 2.

25. U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Reference Repository Location, Hanford Site, Washington , 3 vols., DOE/RW- hard

0070 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-75; hereafter cited as: DOE, NWPA-Hanford.

26. I. Borg et al., Information Pertinent to the Migration of Radionuclides in Ground Water at the Nevada Test Site. Part 1. Review and Analysis of Existing Information (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore Lab., 1976) (Item 53 in US DOE, DE89005394).

27. J. Wang and T. Narasimhan, Hydrologic Mechanisms Governing Fluid Flow in Partially Saturated, Fractured, Porous Tuff at Yucca Mountain (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1984) (Item 105 in US DOE, DE88004834); J. Wang and T. Narasimhan, Hydrologic Mechanisms Governing Partially Saturated Fluid Flow in Fractured Welded Units and Porous Non-Welded Units at Yucca Mountain (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1986) (Item 282 in US DOE, DE88004834).

28. K. Pruess et al., Effective Continuum Approximation for Modeling Fluid and Heat Flow in Fractured Porous Tuff: Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1988) (Item 42 in US DOE, DE89005394).

29. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada: Vol. 2 (Carson City: Nevada Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1988) (Item 334 in US DOE, DE90006793).

30. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada: vol. 1 (Carson City: Nevada Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1988) (Item 335 in US DOE, DE90006793).

31. C. Jantzen et al., Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management VIII. Volume 44 (Pittsburgh: Materials Research Society, 1989) (Item 403 in US DOE, DE90006793).

32. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-150.

33. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-150.

34. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-157.

35. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-155.

36. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-155.

37. Meyer, "Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site," 9; Pacific Northwest Laboratory et al., Research Program at Maxey Flats , esp. v, I-1, I-2, I-14, IV-6, IV-9, V-7ff.

38. S. Sinnock and T. Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance of the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, Southern Nevada , SAND84-1492 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), 7, 37.

39. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 47.

40. S. Pitman et al., "Corrosion and Slow-Strain-Rate Testing of Type 304L Stainless in Tuff Groundwater Environments," in Corrosion '87 (San Francisco: Pacific Northwest Lab., 1986) (Item 172 in US DOE, DE88004834).

41. C. Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , NUREG/CR-4509 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1986), 22.

42. Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , 65.

43. Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , 66.

44. S. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time and Radionuclide Transport at the Yucca Mountain Repository Site , SAND85-2701 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), 58.

45. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates , 77.

46. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates , 1-2.

47. P. Zhang, Evaluation of the Geologic Relations and Seismotectonic Stability of the Yucca Mountain Area, Nevada Waste Site Investigation , 2 vols. (NNWSI) (Reno: Center for Neotectonic Studies, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, 1989), vol. 2.

48. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 53.

49. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 53.

50. R. Einziger and H. Buchanan, Long-Term, Low-Temperature Oxidation of PWR Spent Fuel: Interim Transition Report (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 26 in US DOE, DE89005394).

51. H. D. Smith, Electrochemical Corrosion-Scoping Experiments: An Evaluation of the Results (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 151 in US DOE, DE90006793); H. D. Smith, Initial Report on Stress-Corrosion-Cracking Experiments Using Zircaloy-4 Spent Fuel Cladding C-Rings (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 153 in US DOE, DE90006793).

52. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-5, E-11.

53. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 57.

54. C. Baylis, "Are Some Propositions Neither True Nor False?" Philosophy of Science 3 (1936): 156-166; C. Ducasse, "Truth, Verifiability, and Propositions about the Future," Philosophy of Science 8 (1941): 329-337; O. Helmer and P. Oppenheim, "A Syntactical Definition of Probability and Degree of Confirmation," The Journal of Symbolic Logic 10 (1945): 25-60; C. Hempel, "Eine rein topologische Form nichtaristotelischer Logik," Erkenntnis 6 (1936-1937): 436-442; N. Rescher, Many-Valued Logic (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969).

55. See, for example, K. R. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1959); K. R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963); C. Hempel, Philosophy of Natural Science (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966).

56. See Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery ; Popper, Conjectures and Refutations ; Hempel, Philosophy of Natural Science .

57. Younker, Albrecht, et al., B-2.

58. Younker, Albrecht, et al., B-2.

59. See, for example, Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery ; Popper, Conjectures and Refutations ; Hempel, Philosophy of Natural Science ; J. Fetzer, "The Frame Problem: Artificial Intelligence Meets David Hume," International Journal of Expert Systems 3, no. 3 (1991): 219-232.

60. M. Resnick, Choices (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1986); R. D. Luce and H. Raiffa, Games and Decisions (New York: Wiley, 1957), 275-326.

61. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 100-130.

62. See Rescher, Many-Valued Logic .

63. Fetzer, "The Frame Problem," 223, 227.

64. Younker, Andrews, et al., 1-31.

65. J. Bates, J. Bradley, A. Teetsov, C. Bradley, M. Buchholtz, and M. B. ten Brink, "Colloid Formation During Waste Form Reaction: Implications for Nuclear Waste Disposal," Science 256 (1 May 1992): 649-651.

66. J. Raloff, "Radwastes May Escape Glass via New Route," Science News 141, no. 18 (1992): 141.

67. C. Ducasse, "Truth, Verifiability, and Propositions about the Future," Philosophy of Science 8 (1941): 329-337; Rescher, Many-Valued Logic.

68. Younker, Albrecht, et al., B-2.

69. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 40-51, 257, 460.

70. See Rescher, Many-Valued Logic , 328ff.; Helmer and Oppenheim, "A Syntactical Definition of Probability."

71. Younker, Andrews, et al., 1-18.

72. Younker, Andrews, et al., 1-13.

73. H. Otway and M. Peltu, Regulating Industrial Risks (London: Buttersworths, 1985), 4.

74. See, for example, Younker, Albrecht, et al., 13.

75. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 460.

76. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-123, 2-124.

77. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-123, 2-124.

78. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-5.

79. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-123, 2-124.

80. J. Thompson, Laboratory and Field Studies Related to the Radionuclide Migration Project: Progress Report, October 1, 1986-September 30, 1987 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1988) (Item 358 in US DOE, DE90006793).

81. B. Kiernan et al., Report of the Special Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste Disposal , no. 142 (Frankfort, Ky.: Legislative Research Commission, 1977), ix-17; U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration (U.S. ERDA), "ERDA-1538," Final Environmental Statement: Waste Management Operations, Hanford Reservation, Richland, Washington , (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, 1975), vol. 2, 11.1-H-1 through 11.1-H-4.

82. G. Hart, "Address to the Forum," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Proceedings of a Public Forum on Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Wastes , (ORP/CSD-78-2) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), 6.

83. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1538," vol. 1, X-74; see Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , chaps. 2-3.

84. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1538," vol. 1, p. II.1-57.

85. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1538," vol. 1, p. III.2-2.

86. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1537," Waste Management Operations: Savannah River Plant, Aiken, South Carolina , (UC-2-11-70) (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, September 1977), II-20 and IV-2; see also U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1536," Waste Management Operations, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, September 1977), E-41. For data on the 1061 figure, see U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Hearings before the Subcommittee on Energy and Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insu- soft

lar Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, 18 September 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), 46; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, NWPA.

87. U.S. EPA, Considerations of Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Waste (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1978), 26.

88. Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code , i. 1.

89. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-7.

90. D. Alexander et al., "High Level Radioactive Waste Management," vol. 2, in Proceedings of the International Topical Meeting (La Grange Park, Ill.: American Nuclear Society, April 1990), 1283.

91. GeoTrans, Review of Modeling Efforts Associated with Yucca Mountain, Nevada , NWPO-TR-004-87 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1986), 1.

92. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates , 1-2. See also R. Loux, Nevada State and Local Government Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy's Report to Congress Pursuant to Section 175 of the Nuclear Waste Policy Act, as Amended , NWPO-SE-020-89 (Carson City: The Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects and Affected Local Government, March 1989), 3; G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, December 1990), 37.

93. R. Beers and R. Morey, Subsurface Radar Profiling Field Tests at Low-Level Nuclear Waste Burial Sites: Maxey Flats, Kentucky and Beatty, Nevada , NUREG/CR-1272 GC-TR-79-1023 WL (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Health, Siting and Waste Management Office of Regulatory Research, June 1981), 43.

94. R. McGuire et al., Demonstration of a Risk-Based Approach to High-Level Waste Repository Evaluation , NP-7075 Research Project 3055-2 (Palo Alto, Calif.: EEI/UWASTE and Electric Power Research Institute, October 1990), iii, 12-2.

95. M. Board, Examination of the Use of Continuum Versus Discontinuum Models for Design and Performance Assessment for the Yucca Mountain Site , NUREG/CR-5426 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, August 1989), iii, 66.

96. J. Lemons and D. Brown, "The Role of Science in the Decision to Site a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," The Environmentalist 10, no. 1 (1990): 6.

97. U.S. Congress, NWPA, 211ff. See also U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, 29 June 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987); hereafter sited as: U.S. Congress, NWP-June. R. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada (Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, 1989), vol. 2: 2.

98. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site , vol. 1: I-1 through I-4.

99. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan , vol. 1: 3.

100. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 128.

101. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 128.

102. See, for example, K. Shrader-Frechette, Expert Judgment in Assessing Radwaste Risks (Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, Yucca Mountain Socioeconomic Project, 1992).

103. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 120.

104. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 120-121.

105. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 122.

106. See, for example, I. C. Yang, Climatic Changes Inferred from Analyses of Lake Sediment Cores, Walker Lake , USGS-WRI-84-4006 (Las Vegas: Water-Resources Investigations Report, U.S. Geological Survey, 1989); S. S. Levy, "Mineralogic Alteration History and Paleohydrology at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," in High Level Radioactive Waste Management, Proceedings of the Second Annual International Conference , 28 April-3 May, 1991, Las Vegas (La Grange Park, Ill.: American Nuclear Society, Inc., 1991), 477-485.

107. Levy, "Mineralogic Alteration History."

108. See Yang, Climatic Changes .

109. C. B. Raleigh and the panel on Coupled Hydrologic/Techtonic/Hydrothermal Systems at Yucca Mountain, Groundwater at Yucca Mountain: How High Can It Rise ? (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992).

110. Raleigh, Groundwater at Yucca Mountain , 140, C-9 through C-23.

111. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-69.

112. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-67.

113. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 520.

114. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 2-70.

115. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 3, p. c. 2-28, and R. Bryan, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Site at Yucca Mountain , 2 vols. (Carson City: Nuclear Waste Project Office, Office of the Governor, 1985), vol. 1: I-48 through I-49.

116. M. Winsor and C. Malone, "State of Nevada Perspective on Environmental Program Planning for the Yucca Mountain Project," The Environmental Professional 12 (1990): 196, 205-206; see C. Malone, "Geologic and Hydrologic Issues Related to Siting a Repository for High-Level Nuclear Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," Journal of Environmental Management 30 (1990): 381-396.

117. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-298, 6-299.

118. R. Loux, Comments on U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Draft 1988 Mission Plan Amendment (DOE/RW-0187, June 1988) (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1988), 39.

119. R. Hunter and C. Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes Affecting the Performance of Geologic Repositories , NUREG/CR-3964 SAND86-0196, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of High-Level Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, June 1989), 3.

120. Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities , 7.

121. Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities , 10.

122. N. Matuska, Ground-Water Sampling of the NNWSI Water Table Test Wells Surrounding Yucca Mountain, Nevada NWPO-TR-010-89 (Las Vegas and Reno: Water Resources Center Desert Research Institute, December 1988), 11-12.

123. See C. Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 1112-1113; B. Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 575.

124. See Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment," 1113; E. Liebow, "Letter to Kristin Shrader-Frechette" (Seattle: Batelle Human Affairs Research Center, 17 July 1987); E. Liebow and J. Fawcett, "Socioeconomic Aspects of Repository-Related Risk Perceptions: A Preliminary Literature Review" (Seattle: Batelle, 16 July 1987); E. Liebow and D. Herborn, "Assessing the Economic and Social Effects of Perceiving the Repository as 'Risky': A Preliminary Approach" (Seattle: Batelle, 28 May 1987); S. Nealy and E. Liebow (eds.), Assessing Social and Economic Effects of Perceived Risk , PNL-6515, BHARC-800/88/005 UC-70 (Richland, Wash.: Pacific Northwest Laboratory, March 1988).

125. See, for example, U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-294, and U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, p. c.5-56.

126. See W. Freudenburg, "Perceived Risk, Real Risk: Social Science and the Art of Probabilistic Risk Assessment," Science 242 (7 October 1988): 44-49; W. Freudenburg and T. Jones, "Attitudes and Stress in the Presence of Technological Risk," Social Forces 69, no. 4 (June 1991): 1143-1168; L. Gould et al., Perceptions of Technological Risks and Benefits (New York: Sage, 1988); C. Heimer, "Social Structure, Psychology and the Estimation of Risk," Annual Review of Sociology 14: 491-519; B. Johnson and V. Covello (eds.), The Social and Cultural Construction of Risk , (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1987); J. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception," Practicing Anthropology 10 (1988): 8-9, 12; J. Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study , NWPO-SE-015-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988); P. Slovic, "Perception of Risk," Science 236 (1987): 280-285; P. Slovic et al., "Rating the Risks: the Structure of Expert and Lay Perceptions," Environment 21 (April 1979); and A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, "Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases," Science 185 (1974): 1124-1131.

127. D. MacLean (ed.), Values at Risk (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1986); K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk Analysis and Scientific Method (Boston: Reidel, 1985), 55-124; K. Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology (Boston: Reidel, 1985), 67ff., 121ff., 210ff., 261ff., 286ff.; K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 2; R. Andrews, "Environmental Impact Assessment and Risk Assessment," in Environmental Impact Assessment , ed. P. Wathern (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), 85-97; L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 1017-1046.

128. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 8.

129. P. Ricci and A. Henderson, "Fear, Fiat, and Fiasco," in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. A. Woodhead et al. (New York: Plenum, 1988), 288-293; D. Paustenbach, "A Survey of Health Risk Assessment," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. Paustenbach, 38-39; R. Gammage and C. Travis, "Formaldehyde Exposure and Risk," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 601-611.

130. A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, "Belief in the Law of Small Numbers," in Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases , ed. D. Kahneman et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 23-31; D. Kahneman and A. Tversky, "Subjective Probability," in Judgment Under Uncertainty , ed. D. Kahneman et al., 46-47.

131. See S. Oskamp, "Overconfidence in Case-Study Judgments," in Judgment Under Uncertainty , ed. Kahneman et al., 287-293.

132. Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment"; Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes."

133. L. Cox, "Comparative Risk Measures," in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. Woodhead et al., 233-243; see B. Ames et al., "Ranking Possible Carcinogens," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 1083ff.; M. Layard and A. Silvers, "Epidemiology in Environmental Risk Assessment," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 159; N. Harley, "Environmental Lung Cancer Risk from Radon Daughter Exposure," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 620; and Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes," 574.

134. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 6.

135. For discussions of risk perception see, for example, Freudenburg, "Perceived Risk, Real Risk"; Freudenburg and Jones, "Attitudes and Stress"; Gould et al., Perceptions of Technological Risks and Benefits ; Heimer, "Social Structure, Psychology and the Estimation of Risk"; Johnson and Covello, The Social and Cultural Construction of Risk ; J. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception"; J. Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study ; Slovic, "Perception of Risk"; Slovic et al., "Rating the Risks"; and Tversky and Kahneman, "Judgment Under Uncertainty."

136. J. Yasinsky, "Nuclear Waste Management--Choosing Among the Options," Proceedings of the American Power Conference 45 (1983): 851-854 (Item 137 in US DOE, DE89005394). For further examples of this problem, see U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-294, and U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, p. c. 5-56.

137. See U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 29 April and 7 May 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 41, for the 80-percent figure. See also J. Davis, "Wasting of Nevada," Sierra 73, no. 4 (July 1988): 31-35 (Item 251 in US DOE, DE89005394). For another confirmation of the 80-percent figure, see P. Slovic, J. Flynn, and M. Layman, "Perceived Risk, Trust, and the Politics of Nuclear Waste," Science 254 (13 December 1991): 1604.

138. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 4.

139. P. Slovic et al., Perceived Risk, Stigma, and Potential Economic Impacts of a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository in Nevada , NWPO-SE-023-89 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Projects Office, July 1989). W. Burns et al., Social Amplification of Risk: An Empirical Study , NWPO-SE-027-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1990). For other discussions of social amplifications of risk, see chapter three, notes 12-13 and chapter four, note 170.

140. Burns et al., Social Amplification of Risk , 660. See J. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception"; J. Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study ; H. Peters and L. Hennen, The Accident at Gorleben: A Case Study of Risk Communication and Risk Amplification in the Federal Republic of Germany , NWPO-SE-012-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, July 1988).

141. P. Slovic et al., What Comes to Mind When You Hear the Words "Nuclear Waste Repository"?: A Study of 10,000 Images , NWPO-SE-028-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1990), i.

142. Slovic et al., What Comes to Mind When You Hear the Words "Nuclear Waste Repository"? .

143. Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes," 575; Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment," 1112-1113; K. Shrader-Frechette, "Economics, Risk-Cost Benefit Analysis, and the Linearity Assumption," in PSA 1982 , ed. P. Asquith and T. Nickles (East Lansing, Mich.: Philosophy of Science Association, 1982).

144. Cox and Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," 1017-1046; W. Rowe, An Anatomy of Risk (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977), 926.

145. B. Fischhoff et al., "Facts and Fears," in Societal Risk Assessment , ed. R. Schwing and W. Albers (New York: Plenum, 1980), 207; R. Kates et al., Hazards: Technology and Fairness (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986).

146. S. Samuels, "The Arrogance of Intellectual Power," in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. Woodhead et al., 113-120; see also P. Pahner, "The Psychological Displacement of Anxiety: An Application to Nuclear Energy," in Risk-Benefit Methodology and Application , ed. D. Okrent (Los Angeles: University of California School of Engineering and Applied Science, 1975), 575.

147. P. Gleick and J. Holdren, "Assessing the Environmental Risks of Energy," American Journal of Public Health 71, no. 9 (September 1981): 1046; A. Van Horn and R. Wilson, "The Status of Risk-Benefit Analysis," discussion paper (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Energy and Environmental Policy Center, 1976), 19.

148. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-121.

149. See, for example, U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-24 and 6-25.

150. U. Park and C. Pflum, "Requirements for Controlling a Repository's Releases of Carbon-14 Dioxide: The High Costs and Negligible Benefits," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 2 in US DOE, DE91000566).

151. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 70ff.

152. C. Comar, "Risk: A Pragmatic De Minimis Approach," Science 203, no. 4378 (1979): 319; Cox and Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," 1028-1041.

153. C. Starr, Current Issues in Energy , (New York: Pergamon, 1979), 14ff.; L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Risk, Uncertainty, and Causation," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 134-135.

154. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 71ff.

155. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Strategy Plan for the Geologic Repository Program (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1990).

156. For the DOE claim, see B. Rusche, "Statement," in Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 99th Congress, First Session on the Department on Energy's Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program, 12 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 484-485. For regulations concerning other nuclear facilities, see Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 5.

157. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chaps. 5, 7.

158. K. Neuhauser et al., "Projected Environmental Impacts of Radioactive Material Transportation to the First U.S. Repository Site," in International Symposium on the Packaging and Transport of Radioactive Materials (PATRAM '86) (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986) (Item 180 in US DOE, DE89005394). See also U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-121.

159. C. Brown, "Equalizing Differences in the Labor Market," Quarterly Journal of Economics 94, no. 1 (February 1980): 113-134; A. Dillingham, "The Injury Risk Structure of Occupations and Wages," Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1979; R. McLean et al., "Compensating Wage Differentials for Hazardous Work: An Empirical Analysis," Quarterly Review of Economics and Business 18, no. 3 (1978): 97-107; C. Olson, "Trade Unions, Wages, Occupational Injuries, and Public Policy," Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1979; R. Smith, "Compensating Wage Differentials and Hazardous Work," Technical Analysis Paper no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Office of Evaluation, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Policy Evaluation and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, 1973); R. Thaler and S. Rosen, "The Value of Saving a Life," in Household Production and Consumption , ed. N. Terleckyi (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1976), 265-298; W. Viscusi, Employment Hazards , (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); J. Graham and D. Shakow, "Risk and Reward," Environment 23, no. 8 (October 1981): 14-20, 44-45; J. Graham et al., "Risk Compensation," Environment 25, no. 1 (January/February 1983): 14-27.

160. E. Eckholm, "Unhealthy Jobs," Environment 19, no. 6 (August/September 1977): 31-33; D. Berman, Death on the Job (London: Monthly Review Press, 1978); see also D. Paustenbach, "A Survey of Health Risk Assessment," 34-35, and Samuels, "The Arrogance of Intellectual Power," 113-120.

161. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 72ff.

162. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session on the Current Status of the Department of Energy's Civilian Nuclear Waste Activities, 29 January, 4 and 5 February 1987, Part 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 212; hereafter cited as: Nuclear Waste Program-January .

163. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 213. For a discussion of the importance of supplying risk information to the public, see M. Baram, "Rights and Duties Concerning the Availability of Environmental Risk Information to the Public," in Communicating Risks to the Public , ed. R. E. Kasperson and P. M. Stallen (Boston: Kluwer, 1991), 67-78.

164. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 216, 726.

165. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 699-746.

166. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 216-245, 466-509.

167. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 923.

168. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 747.

169. O. Morgenstern, On the Accuracy of Economic Observations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), 62.

170. See, for instance, W. Roberds et al., In-Situ Test Programs Related to Design and Construction of High-Level Nuclear Waste (HLW) Deep Geologic Repositories. Final Report (Task 2), June 1981-November 1982 (Bellevue, Wash.: Golder Associates, Inc., 1983) (Item 145 in US DOE, DE89005394).

171. See, for example, K. Erickson et al., "Approximate Methods to Calculate Radionuclide Discharges for Performance Assessment of HLW Repositories in Fractured Rock," in Waste Management '86. Vol. 2: High-Level Waste , ed. R. Post (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986) (Item 175 in US DOE, DE89005394).

172. See, for example, S. Sinnock and T. Lin, "Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time at Yucca Mountain," in American Nuclear Society Meeting (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1988) (Item 214 in US DOE, DE90006793); P. Huyakorn et al., "Finite Element Simulation of Moisture Movement and Solute Transport in a Large Caisson," in Workshop on Modeling of Solute Transport in the Unsaturated Zone (Herndon, Va.: GeoTrans, Inc., 1987) (Item 212 in US DOE, DE89005394); A. Gutjahr et al., "Panel Summary Report," in Workshop on Modeling of Solute Transport in the Unsaturated Zone (Socorro, N.M.: New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, 1987) (Item 213 in US DOE, DE89005394).

173. J. Rulon et al., Preliminary Numerical Simulations of Groundwater Flow in the Unsaturated Zone, Yucca Mountain, Nevada (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1986) (Item 181 in US DOE, DE89005394).

174. See U.S. DOE, "Project History," in Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 , DOE/OSTI-3406 (Suppl.2) (DE90006793) (Oak Ridge: U.S. DOE, November 1990), viii.

175. S. Mara, Assessment of Effectiveness of Geologic Isolation Systems. Geologic Factors in the Isolation of Nuclear Waste: Evaluation of Long-Term Geomorphic Processes and Catastrophic Events (Seattle: Battelle Pacific Northwest Lab., 1980) (Item 92 in US DOE, DE89005394).

176. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Implementation Plan .

177. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 99th Congress, Second Session, 13 August 1986, Serial No. 99-163 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 5, 6.

178. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 7-9; see C. Malone, "Environmental Review and Regulation for Siting a Nuclear Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 9: 92; Loux, Comments on U.S. Department of Energy , 20-23; Alexander et al., "High Level Radioactive Waste Management."

179. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program , 107; U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 144. See also U.S. Congress, NWPA, 244, and U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-April/May , 185. For DOE's admissions regarding its "schedule pushing," see DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, p. c. 3-23.

180. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 108; U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio . Hearing before the Subcommittee on Transportation, Tourism, and Hazardous Materials of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, Second Session on H.R. 3783, H.R. 3784, and H.R. 3785, 14 October 1988, Serial No. 100-236 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), 1-3, 54ff.

181. For Luken's comment, see U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 25. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 133ff., 235ff., 269ff., 506ff., 625, 667ff. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January ; U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH. ; U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, First Session, 22 February 1989, Serial No. 101-1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989); U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio .

182. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 2.

183. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 36-45.

184. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the US Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan , vol. 1: 3.

185. A. J. Keesler, "Testimony," in U.S. Congress, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, 2 October 1990 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 145.

186. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 75; see Loux, Comments on U.S. Department of Energy , 20-23.

187. See, for example, Board, Examination of the Use of Continuum Versus Discontinuum Models , 66.

188. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 212-213.

189. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 245-271.

190. See, for example, Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan , vol. 1: 3; vol. 2: 2.

191. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time .

192. L. Costin and S. Bauer, Thermal and Mechanical Codes First Benchmark Exercise, Part I: Thermal Analysis , SAND88-1221 UC-814 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1990), i; see N. Hayden, Benchmarking: NNMSI Flow and Transport Codes: Cove 1 Results , SAND84-0996 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), 1-1, 1-2. For those who speak of "verifying" their models, see, for example, R. Barnard and H. Dockery, Technical Summary of the Performance Assessment Calculational Exercises for 1990 (PACE-90). Vol. 1: "Nominal Configuration" Hydrogeologic Parameters and Calculation Results , SAND90-2727 (Albuquerque: Nuclear Waste Repository Technology Department, Sandia National Labs., 1991), 1-3: Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes , 5. For those who claim to "validate" their models, see, for example, T. Brikowski et al., Yucca Mountain Program Summary of Research, Site Monitoring and Technical Review Activities (January 1987-June 1988) , (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, December 1988), 51; Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes , 4; K. Stephens et al., Methodologies for Assessing Long-Term Performance of High-Level Radioactive Waste Packages , NUREG/CR-4477 ATR-85 (5810-01)1ND (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, January 1986), xvi; Barnard and Dockery, Technical Summary of the Performance Assessment Calculational Exercises for 1990 (PACE-90). Vol. 1 : 1-3.

193. For these who believe in program "verification" see, for example, E. Dijstra, A Discipline of Programming (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976); C. Hoare, "An Axiomatic Basis for Computer Programming," Communications of the ACM 12 (1969): 576-580, 583; C. Hoare, "Mathematics of Programming," BYTE (August 1986): 115-149.

194. J. H. Fetzer, "Program Verification: The Very Idea," Communications of the ACM 31, no. 9 (September 1988): 1048-1063. See also J. H. Fetzer, "Philosophical Aspects of Program Verification," Minds and Machines 1 (1991): 197-216; and J. H. Fetzer, "Mathematical Proofs of Computer System Correctness," Notices of the American Mathematical Society 36, no. 10 (December 1989): 1352-1353. For discussions regarding program verification, I am indebted to J. H. Fetzer.

195. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Implementation Plan .

196. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Implementation Plan .

197. J. H. Fetzer, "Another Point of View," Communications of the ACM 32, no. 8 (August 1989): 921.

198. S. Savitzky, "Letters," Communications of the ACM 32, no. 3 (March 1989): 377.

199. D. Nelson, "Letters," Communications of the ACM , 32, no. 7 (July 1989): 792.

200. J. Dobson and B. Randell, "Program Verification," Communications of the ACM 32, no. 4 (April 1989): 422.

201. See, for example, P. Hopkins, Cone 2A Benchmarking Calculations Using LLUVIA , SAND88-2511-UC-814 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1990), 1.

202. J. Emel et al., Postclosure Risks at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Review of Methodological and Technical Issues , NWPO-SE-011-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988), 41.

203. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis , i, v-vi.

204. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis , 1984, 7, 47.

205. Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code , i, 1.

206. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, C. 5-54 and C. 5-55.

207. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, C. 5-56 and U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2, p. 6-294.

208. See, for example, Yonker, Andrews, et al., 1-18, 2-6.

209. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 13, 47, 107, 149.

210. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 13, 47, 107, 149.

211. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 7.

212. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 112.

213. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 47.

214. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 511.

215. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 247, 411, 467.

216. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking , I-3.

217. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH ; U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities ; U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio . See also note 12, chapter 1, for other evidence of DOE failures.

218. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking , I-4.

219. K. Wilson and B. Lyons, Ground-Water Levels and Tritium Concentrations at the Maxey-Flats Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Site Near Morehead, Kentucky, June 1984 to April 1989 , Report 90-4189 (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1991), 36.

220. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 67.

221. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 132.

222. U.S. NRC, Reactor Safety Study , Report no. (NUREG-75/014) WASH-1400 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975).

223. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality .

224. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 446.

225. For example, U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January ; U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH ; U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities ; U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio .

226. For example, H. Kunreuther et al., "Public Attitude Toward Siting a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository in Nevada," Risk Analysis 10, no. 4 (December 1990): 483.

227. Loux, Nevada State and Local Government Comments , 2; Winsor and Malone, "State of Nevada Perspective on Environmental Program Planning, 197, 205; G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, November 1988), 8-9, 13.

228. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 133, 219, 321, 328; D. Golding and A. White, Guidelines on the Scope, Content, and Use of Comprehensive Risk Assessment in the Management of High-Level Nuclear Waste Transportation , NWPO-TN-007-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, December 1990), 28ff.; J. Lemons et al., "America's High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository: A Case Study of Environmental Science and Public Policy," Intern. J. Environmental Studies 34 (1989): 25; J. Emel et al., Postclosure Risks at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Review of Methodological and Technical Issues , NWPO-SE-011-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988), 42.

229. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 446.

230. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 726.

231. See U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 747; see G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, November 1986), 92ff.; C. Malone, "Environmental Performance Assessment: A Case Study of an Emerging Methodology," J. Environmental Systems 19, no. 2 (1990): 171-184.

232. Burns et al., Social Amplification of Risk , 1ff. For further information on social amplification of risk, see notes 12-13, chapter 3, and note 170, chapter 4.

233. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception"; Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study .

234. Peters and Hennen, The Accident at Gorleben .

235. More than a billion dollars has already been spent in site-characterization activities at Yucca Mountain, and the site characterization work has just begun. R. Loux, "Will the Nation's Nuclear Waste Policy Succeed at Yucca Mountain?" Public Utilities Fortnightly (22 November 1990): 26-28 and U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 268.

236. For a fuller discussion of problems of scientific method in Yucca Mountain QRAs and recommendations about improving these methods, see Shrader-Frechette, Expert Judgment in Assessing Radwaste Risks . See also K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Expert Judgment and the Frame Problem: Analysis of the "Early Site Suitability Evaluation," Yucca Mountain (Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, June 1992).

237. Younker, Albrecht, et al., p. B-2.