1— The Fall of Troy
1.
At 3.163ff. the Penates say:
est
locus
,
Hesperiam
Grai
cognomine
di
-
5
cunt
. . .
hae
nobis
propriae
sedes
,
hinc
Dardanus
ortus
Iasiusque
pater
,
genere
a
quo
principe
nostrum
[there is a region for which the Greeks use the name Hes-
peria . . . this is our true home: from here came Dardanus and Iasius, another chieftain
of our blood, and founder of the Trojan nation]; cf. 7.205, 240. Thus Virgil (cf. G.
Wissowa,
Gesammelte
Abhandlungen
zur
römischen
Religions
-
und
Staatgeschichte
[Munich, 1904] 113 n. 3) has concluded from Dardanus' Italian origin that the
Phrygii
penates
rescued by Aeneas are themselves Italian in origin. On this tradition
see Thrämer in Pauly-Wissowa
RE
IV 2175, who is certainly right to regard Virgil
as following it, not inventing it.
2.
Ancient commentators often point this out, quite correctly: see H. Georgii,
Die
antike
Aeneiskritik
(Stuttgart, 1891) 46f., but note that he mistakenly concludes
continue
that their aim is to deflect a serious criticism of Aeneas' character. This is unfortu-
nately one of numerous places in Georgii's book where references by the
commentators to intentions of the poet that are not completely obvious are wrongly
interpreted as forms of defence.
7 3.

Proclus; we are reminded of Odysseus disguised as a beggar (his

8 4. Apollod. epit . Vat . 5.17.
5.
In what follows, I treat both Quintus and Tryphiodorus as representatives of a
tradition independent of Virgil; for my reasons see the excursus (pp. 37f.) where
there is also a fuller discussion of the mythographical tradition of the Laocoon story.
9 6. In Dio. Chrys. ( Or . 59), Odysseus begins:


Troy]: cf. Sinon, neque me Argolica de gente negabo [I will not deny that I am an
Argive]. Odysseus has been grievously offended by the Greeks,


being your friend and their enemy]: cf. Virgil 2.158, fas odisse viros [it is right that I
should hate them].
7.
Fando
aliquod
si
forte
tuas
pervenit
ad
auris
Belidae
nomen
Palamedis
et
incluta
fama
gloria
[there may perhaps have come to your ears some mention of
Palamedes, son of Belus, a king of great military renown]: cf.



lamedes, son of Nauplios. He was no ordinary or mean member of the expedition
among the army and its leaders].
10 8. Based on Livy 22.48.
9.
Cf. Varro's definition of
victus
('vanquished') quoted by Servius on 11.306.
Punic treachery is well-known (
perfidia
plus
quam
Punica
[treachery greater than
Carthaginian]) (Livy 21.9, characterizing Hannibal); cf. 22.6.12;
Poeni foedifragi
[the Carthaginians breakers of treaties] (Cic.
De
Off
. 1.38);
Afri
gens
periura
[the
Africans, a perjured people] (Virg.
Catal
. 9.51);
ipse
fons
perfidiae
. . .
Karthagi
-
nienses
[the Carthaginians . . . he very originators of treachery] (Val. Max. 9.6 ext.
1); other examples in Otto,
Sprichwörter
der
Römer
s.v.
Punicus
; cf. also E. Wölf-
flin,
Archiv
für
latein
.
Lexicogr
. 7 [1892] 135-7; for example, a similar innocent
faith in
fides
Punica
[Carthaginian trustworthiness], according to highly coloured
Roman accounts, betrayed the consul Cornelius Scipio Asina into the hands of his
enemies (Münzer, Pauly-Wissowa
RE
IV 1486). But the Romans were also inclined
to suspect perfidiousness in other enemies:
genus
Numidarum
infidum
[the faithless
race of Numidians] (Sall.
Iug
. 46.3) cf.
fallacissima
gens
[a most deceitful nation]
(Cic.
Ad
Att
. 11.7.3); the Ligurians are
insidiosi
fallaces
mendaces
[treacherous
deceitful liars] according to Cato and Nigidius (Serv. on
Aen
. 11.700); Lucanians
ut
pleraque
eius
generis
ingenia
sunt
,
cum
fortuna
mutabilem
gerentes
fidem
[like
most of their race, changing their loyalty with their fortune] (Livy 8.24.6);
perfidus
Samnis
[the perfidious Samnite] (Livy 9.3.2); the Sardinians
libertatem
a
servitute
nulla
re
alia
nisi
mentiendi
licentia
distinguendam
putant
[they believe the only
thing that distinguishes freedom from slavery is the licence to tell lies] (Cic.
Pro
Scaur
. 17.38); the Gauls are
suspecta
gens
ob
infida
multa
facinora
[a nation which is
continue
suspect because of its many crimes of faithlessness] (Livy 21.52.7), the Germans
natum
mendacio
genus
[a nation born to lie] (Vell. 2.118);
Dacorum
gens
numquam
fida
[the Dacian race is never to be trusted] (Tac.
Hist
. 3.46); the perfidy of the
Parthians was also well-known: Hor.
Ep
. 2.1.112;
Odes
4.15.23 cf. Tac.
Ann
.
13.38ff.; the Cappadocians as professional liars:
Schol
.
Pers
. 6.77; finally
pleraque
barbarorum
ingenia
[most barbarian characters] were thought to be unreliable: Livy
22.22.6.
10.
Graeci
gens
lingua
magis
strenua
quam
factis
[the Greeks, a race more
energetic in speech than in action] (Livy 8.22.8);
gens
ad
fingendum
parata
[a race
ready to invent fictions] (Val. Max. 4.7.4);
Graecula
cautio
chirographi
[a Greek,
11 i.e. unreliable, guarantee given by my own hand] known from Cic.
Ad
Fam
.:
Ep
.
7.18.1, cf.
De
Orat
. 1.47;
Pro
Flacc
. 9ff. Otto,
Sprichwörter
der
Römer
s.v.
Graecus
.
11.
More recent exegetes have contrived to find more subtleties: I am not con-
vinced of the existence of the alleged

12
12.
It is also not until this point that he divulges (
fas
omnia
ferre
sub
auras
,
si
qua
tegunt
[158] [it cannot be sin for me to expose what the Greeks are hiding]), that
the Greeks have only left in order to make a quick return and to renew the fighting
(176-82), and have not, as he had maintained at 108ff., given up the struggle out of
war-weariness. The contradiction between the two passages is entirely deliberate.
13.
When people tell lies - for example, defendants in court cases - they can
often be seen to invent a mass of apparently insignificant detail in order to give an
appearance of verisimilitude.
13
14.
E. Bethe, 'Vergilstudien I',
Rhein
.
Mus
. 46 (1891) 511ff. Followed by Sab-
badini,
Il
primitivo
disegno
dell
'
Eneide
(Turin, 1900) 19ff.
14
15.
There is no need to think that Virgil means the highest part of the citadel as
opposed to the lower part, any more than at 12.697 where Aeneas, storming Lavi-
nium,
deserit
et
muros
et
summas
deserit
arces
[left the walls and the high citadel].
16.
So too Dido (4.409) sees
arce
ex
summa
[from high on the citadel] the
Trojans on the shore preparing to leave.
15
17.
Similarly, Dido the
Queen
moves
magna
iuvenum
stipante
caterva
(1.497,
4.136) [closely attended by a numerous, youthful retinue], King Helenus
multis
comitantibus
(3.346) [with many attendants]; King Aeneas, it is true,
multis
cum
milibus
[with many thousands] but
magna
medius
comitante
caterva
(5.76) [in the
midst of a large crowd in attendance]; when Androgeos meets the Trojans in battle
magna
comitante
caterva
(2.370) [with a large crowd of attendants], this signifies
that he is the leader of the company.
16
18.
The poet clearly intended a development from
credita
res
(196) [we believed
his story] to
ducendum
ad
sedes
simulacrum
conclamant
(232) [they shouted for the
horse to be taken to its place]. Sabbadini fails to notice it when he writes (20):
allora
i
Troiani
si
persuadono
che
bisogna
introdurre
in
città
il
cavallo
.
Ma
come
se
già
prima
erano
stati
persuasi
da
Sinone?
[Then the Trojans decide that it is necessary
to bring the horse into the city. But how can that be, if they had already been
persuaded by Sinon?].
17
19.
Goethe (
Über
Laokoon
[
Werke
, 40-vol. edn] 30.317) laid emphasis on this in
interpreting the Laocoon episode in Virgil, too exclusively in my view, but correctly.
continue
The objections of Plüss (
Vergil
und
die
epische
Kunst
[Leipzig, 1884] 42ff.) do not
seem to me to get to grips with this interpretation. It is not a question of Virgil
presenting an unforgivable act of stupidity by the Trojans in a kinder light, but of
preventing their action from appearing as unforgivable stupidity. Otherwise I am in
complete agreement with Plüss on many matters. I refer you to his own discussion
of this.
20.
Schiller likes to use this effect. I am thinking of such scenes as
Wallensteins
Tod
III 16, after the long conversation between Wallenstein and the lance-corporal,
when Buttler enters; or at the end of Act III after the scene between Max and
Wallenstein when the cuirassiers storm in.
18
21.
This is the reason, according to Bethe, why the phrase
s
o
l
l
e
m
n
i
s
ad
aras
[at the altar of the cult] is ill-adapted to the situation: the sanctuary would not have
been able to survive the storm and stress of the ten years' war, or must at least have
been out of use during those years. But why should the Greeks have destroyed the
altar? And even if the altar had not been used, it remains the
ara
sollemnis
, i.e. the
place where sacrifice was offered according to established sacred custom, in con-
trast to a turf altar erected for a single sacrifice, of the kind that we often find in the
Aeneid
. Furthermore, the epithet is very suitable here, because this is the first time
the sacrifice is being offered to Neptune again at his own sacred place (perhaps
newly rededicated - does it make any difference?).
22.
It might be objected that no reader would be aware of this connection unless
he knew his Euphorion by heart. But do we know that Virgil could not assume this
familiarity among the élite of his readership? Again, after Thymoetes' advice to pull
the horse into the city, he continues
sive
d
o
l
o
seu
iam
Troiae
sic
fata
ferebdnt
(34) [perhaps out of treason or perhaps because Troy's fate was already fixed], and
he must have assumed that this would mean something to one or another of his
readers; but that would only be the case if they knew Euphorion's version (which we
know from Servius
ad
loc
.). It did not matter if the average reader missed these
allusions; they were there for the connoisseur to enjoy.
20 23. Quintus 12.480:


tered the temple of Apollo in holy Pergamon]. This is probably derived from local
tradition.
21
24.
All of this, the
falsa
gaudia
(6.513) [deluded joy], is indicated later by a
single word,
urbem
somno
vinoque
sepultam
(256) [a city buried in a sleep deepened
by
wine
]. It goes without saying that the cup circulates at festivities (
festa
fronde
[249] [with festal greenery]); this only needs to be mentioned to explain why the
surprise attack succeeds so rapidly.
22 25. Sabbadini op. cit. n. 14 above, 22.
26.
Similarly, Eurylochus' speech (
Od
. 10.251ff.) is much more concise than the
earlier narrative of Odysseus.
23
27.
Flammas
cum
regia
puppis
extulerat
,
fatisque
deum
defensus
iniquis
. . .
laxat
claustra
Sinon
(256ff.) [the king's ship displayed a fire-signal; and Sinon under the
divine protection of an unjust destiny . . . released the Greeks from their confinement].
This is now usually understood not, with Heyne (referring to Sen.
Agam
. 427,
signum
recursus
regia
ut
fulsit
rate
[when the signal for retreat shone from the
continue
king's ship]), as the signal to depart, but as the signal to Sinon; correctly, in my
opinion, for the former is a totally unimportant detail, and there is no need whatever
for it be be mentioned here in close connection with Sinon's action. The other
sources have only the fire-signal given by Sinon, or by Antenor instead of him
(schol. Lycophron 340), or by Helen: this last version is followed by Virgil (6.518)
in the speech of Deiphobus, and Virgil no doubt had this later passage in mind when
he kept this motif in reserve for it. But he obviously feels the need to establish a
connection between the fleet and Sinon, so as to explain the synchronization of their
movements, and so he reverses the traditional motif. If one thinks about it, Sinon
needs to have accurate information about the approach of the fleet, so as not to open
the horse too soon.
28.
Virgil names nine, not in the shapeless list of the mythographers, but ar-
ranged artistically in three groups of three. Of course this does not mean that there
may not have been more; there were, for example, twenty-two in Tryphiodorus' list
(152ff.), thirty plus in Quintus (12.314), while others even speak of a hundred, or
thousands. Virgil could not omit the list, since it was a standard feature of any
account of the fall of Troy. The names are in the tradition: we find Neoptolemus,
Menelaus, Odysseus, Sthenelus, Thoas and Epeos in Quintus, Acamas in Tryphio-
dorus (cf. Paus. 1.23.8), Machaon is named as coming out of the horse in the
pseudo-Hippocratic
Epistle
27, p. 318 Herch. (already quoted by Heyne as
Thes
-
salus
in

Marx); this leaves only Thessandrus unattested elsewhere. Tradition also plays a
hand in making Epeos come last, as in Quintus (329) and Tryphiodonrs (182): there
the heroes are mentioned by name as they climb into the horse, and of course Epeos
is the one who knows best how the fastening works.
29.
That, too, is tradition, Apollod.
epit
. 5.20. Elsewhere it is a ladder, see
Paulcke,
De
Tabula
Iliaca
quaestt
.
Stesichoreae
(Diss. Königsburg, 1897) 81.
24
30.
Ancient authors frequently transfer 'calmness' from the night to the moon,
the

signa [the silent night signs] (Hor. Odes 2.8.10); it is irrelevant in this passage that
the new moon was called luna silens [the silent moon]; cf. Stat. Theb . 2.58: per
Arcturum mediaeque silentia Lunae [by Arcturus and the silence of the moon at
midnight]. The adjective amica [friendly] must refer to luna , the moon that shows
them the way; if Virgil meant that they succeeded in remaining unnoticed because
of the friendly silence of the night, it would hardly be consistent to mention the
moonlight.
31. Schol. Eurip. Hec . 910:

[it was midnight, and the bright moon was rising], quoted by Callisthenes as proof
that the poet sets the destruction of Troy on the eighth day of the waning of the
moon in the month of Thargelion; F. Marx ( Rostocker Prog . [1889/90] 13) also
refers to the representation on the Etruscan mirror IV 2.CCCXCIX Gerh. of the rape
of Cassandra by Ajax, where, however, the identification of Selene is not com-
pletely certain. Hellanicus set the event on a night when the moon was full (Clem.
Alex. Strom . I p. 139 Sylb.; for this and other evidence cf. Müller, Fr . Hist . Gr . I
568; Usener , Arch . für Religionswissenschaft VII [1904] 313f.), but we do not know
whether he was following an earlier tradition. Among later writers only Petronius in continue
his
Troiae
Halosis
54 has a full moon:
iam
plena
Phoebe
candidum
extulerat
iubar
[now the full moon had shown her bright light].
25
32.
nox
atra
cava
circumvolat
umbra
(360) [black night surrounds us in hollow
darkness],
per
caecam
noctem
(397) [in the utter darkness],
si
quos
obscura
nocte
per
umbram
fudimus
insidiis
(420) [those whom in the darkness we had sent
hurrying away in the night-shadows]. Otherwise only at 621, when the bright,
heavenly vision of Venus suddenly disappears,
spissis
noctis
se
condidit
umbris
[she
vanished into the dense shadows of the night] which gives a splendid effect of
contrast; also during the flight,
ferimur
per
opaca
locorum
(725) [on we went,
keeping to the shadows].
33.
In just the same way, Virgil juxtaposes the darkness of the night and the
brightness of the moon in the Nisus episode: Euryalus' helmet betrays him to the
enemy
sublustri
noctis
in
umbra
. . .
radiisque
adversa
refulsit
(9.373) [gleaming in
the night-shadows . . . it reflected rays of light], and the moon then shows Nisus his
destination (403); in the dense wood
rara
per
occultos
lucebat
semita
calles
(383)
[only here and there was there a glimmer of a path among the hidden pathways]; on
the other hand, Nisus is hidden from his enemy by the dark shadows (411,425). The
references to light in the account of the fall of Troy have often been criticized
(probably first by Wagner,
Quaestt
.
Virg
. XXXX 2) but the correct interpretation
was first given I think by Kviçala,
Neue
Beiträge
zur
Erklärung
der Aeneis
22.
26
34.
Vit
-
on
jamais
de
mieux
amené
ni
qui
prépare
un
plus
vif
sentiment
que
ce
songe
d
'
Énée
. . .
peut
-
on
lire
cet
endroit
sans
être
ému?
[Did you ever see anything
which is better introduced or which gives rise to a more intense emotion than this
dream of Aeneas . . . can anyone read this passage without being deeply moved?].
Fénelon,
Lettre
sur
les
occupations
de
l
'
Académie
V. Chateaubriand called the
scene
une
espèce
d
'
abrégé
du
génie
de
Virgile
[a kind of encapsulation of Virgil's
genius] (
Génie
du
christianisme
II 4.11). A hint of the right interpretation is given
by Weidner, whose commentary on
Aeneid
I and II (Leipzig, 1869) is unsatisfactory
in other respects but does at least have the merit of attempting to come to a deeper
understanding of Virgil's artistic intentions.
27
35.
Cf. Otto Ludwig, 'Handlungsszenen als Zustandsbilder',
Studien
I (1891)
454.
36.
Alii
rapiunt
incensa feruntque
Pergama
[Troy is afire and the rest are looting
and pillaging]: however, this is the only reference to flames in the scene involving
Androgeos and Coroebus. Virgil has no need of the bright light of the flames here,
and the Trojans are looking for shadowy parts of the city to practise their stratagem.
37. Apollod. epit . 5.23; Procl. Iliup ., cf. Tryph. 680.
28
38.
As in Quintus' version, as well as in Virgil (and Ovid). See the excursus at
the end of this chapter. Quintus also makes the fire start during the battle: 13.82,
304, 316, 431ff., 442, 452, 458, 461.
39.
Of course it is a completely different matter when in 12.569ff. Aeneas
throws fire into the still unconquered city of Laurentum, to force it to surrender.
40.
Sigea
igni
freta
lata
relucent
(312) [the wide straits of Sigeum are lit up by
the burning]: a painter's touch, without significance for the story.
41.
Succurritis
urbi
incensae
(352) [the city which you would rescue is already
ablaze].
break
29 42. Chapter III, section 3 below.
43.
Timaeus: Wissowa,
Hermes
22 (1887) 41. The legend with slight differences
also appears in Lycophron 1263ff.; Varro ap. schol. Veron.
Aen
. 2.717; Diod. 7.2;
ps-Xen.
De
Venatione
1.15; and, in a very abbreviated form, Apollod.
epit
. 5.21.
44. Dion. Hal. 1.46ff.
30
45.
He need not, of course, have read Hellanicus himself; it is hard to believe
that Dionysius did either. Here too, both may have made use of a common source.
31
46.
Hence the very deliberate phrase
victor
Sinon
(392) [Sinon victorious]; the
Trojans and their gods are already
victi
[defeated] at the beginning of the battle (320,
354, 367; cf. 452); the enemy's sword is drawn not for battle but for murder (
parata
neci
[334] [ready for killing]). Here too, it is parallels from Roman historiography
that can throw most light on Virgil. Cicero still knows of a battle lost at Caudium
(
De
Offic
. 3.109;
Cato
maior
41); Livy will not allow anything of the kind, but
expressly denies that swords were drawn (9.5.10): everything was decided by the
ambush and the stupidity of the generals. At the Allia, in exactly the same way, the
blame is laid on the incompetence of the generals and the surprise attack of the
enemy: it does not amount to a real battle (5.38). 'Both nations and individuals feel
shame at a failure which reveals the limitation of their strength, greater than even the
greatest sense of shame that they feel when through laziness and cowardice they
have not bothered to make any effort at all: in the former case their highflown
pretensions are shattered, in the latter they remain intact' (Niebuhr,
Römische
Ge
-
schichte
III 248):
mutatis
mutandis
this may be applied to the situation here.
32
47.
To understand this passage, we should recall that very similar expressions
are used in the description of the battle-fury of Turnus when he is maddened by
Allecto (7.460-2):
arma
amens
fremit
,
arma
toro
tectisque
requirit
,
saevit
amor
ferri
et
scelerata
insania
belli
,
ira
super
[out of his wits, he roared for weapons and
hunted for them by his bedside and all through the house. In him there rioted the
bloodthirsty lust of the blade, the accursed lunacy of war, and, above all, anger]. It is
significant that Aeneas, in the grip of mindless fury, has no thought whatever for his
family here. Further discussion of this later.
48.
It is wrong to take the pointed sententia
una
salus
victis
,
nullam
sperare
salutem
(354) [nothing can save the conquered but the knowledge that they cannot
now be saved] as meaning that Aeneas hoped that desperate courage might yet be
rewarded (commentators have cited as parallels for this meaning Justin 20.3:
dum
mori
honeste
quaerunt
feliciter
vicerunt
,
nec
alia
causa
victoriae
fuit
quam
quod
desperaverunt
[while they sought to die honourably, they were fortunate enough to
conquer, and the only reason for their victory was their despair], or Hannibal's
words in Livy 21.44:
nullum
contemptu
vitae
telum
ad
vincendum
homini
ab
dis
immortalibus
acrius
datum
est
[no sharper weapon for conquering has been given to
man by the immortal gods than contempt for life]; the notion is rather 'in defeat, a
man who hopes to save his life will either flee or surrender; but for me and you,
these means of escape are not possible: for us nothing remains but death'.
33
49.
However, this particular expression may have been chosen to suggest that
Panthus held the office of chief priest, since Apollo is the special protecting deity of
Troy.
34 50. Pergameumque larem et canae penetralia Vestae . . . veneratur (5.744) [he continue
paid reverence in prayer to the God of the Homes in Troy's citadel, and to the inner
shrine of Vesta the silver-haired].
51.
Only the last two letters,
w
v
, are preserved, which excludes Anchises and
Panthus; it seems hopeless to try to guess the name (Paulcke op. cit. 70).
52.
The ancient commentators understood this correctly: see Servius on 320f. It
35 is idle to ask why a priest of
Apollo
should rescue the
sacra
from the shrine of
Vesta. In Rome there was no separate
sacerdos
Vestae
. During the sack of Rome by
the Gauls it is the Flamen Quirinalis who, together with the Vestal Virgins, rescues
the
sacra
publica
(Livy 5.36ff.); I doubt whether we should conclude from this that
there were close connections between this Flamen and the cult of Vesta.
53.
Nec
tu
plurima
,
Panthu
,
labentem
pietas
nec
Apollinis
infula
texit
(429) [and
you, Panthus, even all your holiness and Apollo's own emblem on your brow could
not save you in your falling], a clear reference to the incident in the
Iliad
(15.521)
referred to above, where the priestly status of Panthus even saved his son from
death.
54.
Wissowa, in the article in which he elucidated the tradition concerning the
Roman Penates (
Hermes
22 [1887] 29ff. [
=
Gesamm
.
Abhandl
.
z
.
röm
.
Religions
-
u
.
Stadtgesch
. 94ff.]; cf. also his article in Roscher's
Lexikon
der
Mythologie
III
1897ff.) mentions the 'vague' nature of Virgil's references, implying that he failed
to give a clear and consistent picture of them. Virgil was right not to do so: it was
difficult or even impossible to represent the mysterious Penates in such a way.
Virgil clearly follows Varro in this, as he nearly always does in sacred matters. The
double expression
sacra
patriique
penates
which (
vel
sim
.) is used most frequently
in the second book (but also simply
sacra
Troiae
[293, 717]) allows the imagination
a great deal of freedom. Vesta and the sacred flame (297) which Varro also connects
closely with the cult of the Penates, can also be thought of as included with them;
since it was hardly possible not to mention the sacred flame, but since it was also
difficult to imagine it being transported, it finds its place in Aeneas' dream-vision.
Virgil makes use of the identification of the Penates with the
magni
dei
(which is
also Varronian) when he wants to emphasize their power 3.12, cf. 8.679; the figure
of epexegesis with copula (
penates
et
magni
di
: cf. E. Norden,
Antike
Kunstprosa
2
[Leipzig, 1909] 127) appears for the third time in the expression
e ffigies
sanctae
divom
Phrygiique
penates
(3.148): if the Penates (following the traditional version:
36 Dion. Hal. 1.67) are to appear to Aeneas himself in a dream, they must be thought of
as
statues
of gods, naturally miniature ones, since they are carried around; so they
must be something like the
sigilla
[statuettes] honoured in the Roman household
cult. Varro (schol. Varron.
Aen
. 2.717) also calls them
sigilla
, and, in view of the
established use of this word, Wissowa can hardly have been right in suggesting that
he was referring to aniconic symbols (whatever Timaeus understood by his

Antiquitates . The poet was right not to embark on the speculations which Varro put
forward in other passages.
55.
For example, Frontinus
Strat
. 3.2.4: the Arcadians suddenly attack a fortress
of the Messenians
factis
quibusdam
armis
ad
similitudinem
hostilium
. . .
admissi
per
hunc
errorem
[they made some weapons to look like those of the enemy . . . they were
admitted as a result of this confusion]. Ibid. 3.11:
Timarchus
Aetolus
occiso
Char
-
soft
made
Ptolemaei
regis
praefecto
clamide
interempti
et
galeari
ad
Macedonicum
ornatus
est
habitum
:
per
hunc
errorem
pro
Charmade
in
Saniorum
portum
receptus
occupavit
[Timarchus the Aetolian, after killing Charmades, King Ptolemy's
general, dressed himself up in Macedonian fashion in the cloak and helmet of the
dead man. Through this deception he was admitted in Charmades' place into the
harbour of the Samii and took possession of it].
37
56.
It is as if Virgil wished to contrast the wicked
perfidia
[treachery] of Sinon
with the
dolus
[deception] sanctioned by martial law; although it is true that Servius
(on 381) believes that Coroebus' words
dolus
an
virtus
,
quis
in
hoste
requirat?
[against an enemy, what does it matter whether it is deception or valour?] character-
ize him as
stultus
:
cum
sit
turpis
dolo
quaesita
victoria
. [foolish, since a victory won
by deception is disgraceful]. Valerius Maximus (7.4.1) gives the ancient view of
stratagems:
illa
pars
calliditatis
egregia
et
ab
omni
reprehensione
procul
remota
[that kind of cunning is splendid. and far removed from any blame]; but the ruse
must not develop into betrayal or the abuse of a noble trust as in the case of Sinon or
the similar case of Sex. Tarquinius, who overcame Gabii
minime
arte
Romana
,
fraude
et
dolo
[by that most un-Roman of arts, trickery and deception] (Livy 1.53.4).
57. Understandably, Virgil follows the version of the story in which Cassandra is
merely dragged from the altar,
trahitur
[is dragged] (cf. Eur.
Tro
. 71:


etc.]: Töpffer in Pauly-Wissowa RE I 938); Aeneas could not mention her rape,
which was invented in Hellenistic times to make Ajax's crime seem greater. On her
chains, see Leo, Hermes 37 (1902) 44ff.; cf. also Eur. Ion 1403.
38
58.
At least, it is only in Virgil that we hear of a fight over Cassandra. Even the
representation on the Vivenzio vase (a hydria by the Kleophrades Painter in Naples,
ARV
2
189.74) does not necessarily presuppose it (a dead man lies at the feet of Ajax,
who is seizing Cassandra).
59.
It has been objected that the discovery is reported (
illi
etiam
si
quos
. . .
fudimus
insidiis
. . .
apparent
;
primi
clipeos
mentitaque
tela
adgnoscunt
[420] [we
were even confronted by some of those whom we had routed by our strategem: they
were the first to see through our deceptive weapons and shields]) only after the
account of how the Greeks, provoked by the rescue of Cassandra and reinforced by
companions who come storming up from all around, have pressed in on the Trojans.
I do not believe that one should assume (with Weidner, Conington and Deuticke)
that Virgil intended to describe two stages of the struggle: (1) Ajax and his compan-
ions fight over Cassandra in the belief that it is their fellow-Greeks who are
contesting their prey (413-9); (2) the Greeks who had previously fled reassemble
and uncover the ruse (420-3). In that case, Virgil would have had to reserve the
terrible violence of the attack, which is made vivid by the simile (416-9), for the
climax of the second stage of the struggle; and why should the
Danai
undique
collecti
[Greeks gathering from all around], the
Atridae
Dolopumque
exercitus
omnis
(413-15) [Atridae and all the Dolopian army], side so decisively with Ajax
and against the group whom they took to be their compatriots? Clearly Virgil is
thinking of those who had previously been deceived as being among the
Danai
undique
collecti
(413); we should note that even in 413-9 nothing is said of the actual
fighting (which is not mentioned until 424) but only of hostile crowds storming in.
continue
The disguise is not said to have been penetrated until the end of this description.
This is so that the defeat of the Trojans should appear to be the direct result of their
being recognized. One only has to imagine lines 420-3 inserted after 412 (as L.
Müller suggested) to see how
ilicet
obruimur
numero
(424) [weight of numbers bore
us down] will then hang in the air; quite apart from the fact that the return of those
who have previously been driven away will appear to be a mere coincidence. On the
other hand, it is, strictly speaking, true to say that, in the text as it now stands, the
explanation of the furious attack by the united Greeks appears too late (Schiller
remedied this in his German version by boldly paraphrasing
gemitu
[groaning] in
413 as 'the screams of the dying have already long betrayed us'); here, too, the poet
thought it more important to put an energetic emphasis on the dramatic
peripeteia
than to produce an absolutely faultless motivation.
60.
Penelei
dextra
(425) [by the hand of Peneleus], whereas the tradition (Paus.
10.27.1) said Neoptolemus or Diomedes. Neoptolemus is not allowed to appear until
more time can be devoted to him (469); Diomedes is not mentioned at all in the
Iliu
Persis
; is Virgil perhaps protecting the reputation of the later Italian settlers (cf.
11.225ff.)? Virgil probably simply took over Peneleus from a catalogue of heroes in
the horse (Tryph. 180).
39
61.
That there were more than the seven named is implied by
confertos
audere
in
proelia
vidi
(347) [I saw them shoulder to shoulder, dauntless for battle], cf.
socia
agmina
credens
(371); and one does not necessarily have to assume that the incom-
plete line 346 indicates that Virgil intended to name any more. Similarly in 6.773ff.
a few names of Latin cities are listed to stand for the thirty, and likewise the names
mentioned at 261ff. are only the most important ones: see above, n. 28.
40
62.
Virgil might have drawn his inspiration from Priam's words
Iliad
22.60ff.:

apart].
63. The tradition had been unanimous in speaking of

liberately replaces him with the Penates (514; 517) because he was presenting them
41 as the ancestors of Rome (according to Dion. Hal. 1.67.3 Penates can also be
translated

Roman custom, in the atrium . Scholars have rightly reminded us that Augustus
transplanted a wild palm growing outside his house in compluvium deorum Pena -
tium [into the courtyard of the Penates]. The penetralia (485) are the same as the
atria (484), as is shown by 7.59: laurus erat tecti medio in penetralibus altis [there
was a laurel in the centre of the palace, within the high-roofed innermost part];
moreover it is obvious that the Penates would be located in the penetralia : pe -
nates . . . etiam penetrales a poetis vocantur [the Penates are also called 'gods of the
interior' by poets], Cic. De Nat . Deorum 2.68;

Herceus . . . quem etiam deum penetralem appellabant [Jupiter Herceus . . . whom they
also called the god of the interior] [Paulus 101]; cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer ,
104.8.
64.
On this type of concise
propositio
of the theme, followed by a fuller develop-
ment, see Norden 275.
65.
It is a different matter in lines 483ff.,
apparet
domus
intus
et
atria
longa
patescunt
[the interior stood revealed. A long vista of galleries was exposed] etc.
continue
(i.e. to Neoptolemus, after he has broken down part of the door). Here, certainly,
42 Aeneas is narrating from the viewpoint of others, but this is acceptable since he has
clearly imagined himself in their position. While the fighting is still raging at the
door, the women wander through the halls, and bid farewell to their beloved old
home (489f.); when the enemy break in, they take refuge at the altar; it is only then
that Aeneas can see
Hecubam
centumque
nurus
[Hecuba and her hundred
princesses] from above.
66.
To be fair, it should be said that Quintus clearly intended to make the brief
preceding speech of old Ilioneus, in which he pleads as a suppliant for his life, a foil
for Priam's words: that is to say, he did have the beginnings of an artistic purpose.
67.
Whether the tree shading the altar on the Naples hydria by the Kleophrades
Painter is intended to represent a laurel (as e.g. Baumeister,
Denkm
. I 742 asserts),
which would imply that here too Virgil is following a tradition, I am unable to
decide.
43 68. Cf. Paulcke loc. cit. n. 29 above, 39, 51.
69.
See Luckenbach,
Verhältnis
der
griechischen
Vasenbilder
zu
den
Gedichten
der
epischen
Cyclen
632; Robert,
Bild
und
Lied
(Berlin, 1881) 74.
70. Cf. Robert op. cit. 60.
44
71.
We may compare the closing words of the narrative of the
paidagogus
in
Sophocles
Electra
(757), of the messenger in
Andromache
(1161), the
Bacchae
(1151),
Heracles
(1013) etc.; on the

suited to the style of drama, see Theon Prog . II 91 Sp. Aeneas concludes (557) iacet
ingens litore truncus , avolsumque umeris caput et sine nomine corpus [his tall body
was left lying headless on the shore, and by it the head hacked from his shoulders: a
corpse without a name]. In Pacuvius (Serv. on 557 and 506) Neoptolemus captured
Priam in his palace and killed him at Achilles' tomb; tunc eius caput conto fixum
circumtulit [then he canried his head around fixed to a pole]. Virgil wanted to use
this version of the tradition, in so far as it could be reconciled with his principal
source, as it suited his anti-Greek viewpoint (cf. on combining different versions in
this way, the excursus on sources at the end of this chapter, and Norden 255f.).
Admittedly, Aeneas could not have known the facts that he narrates here (see above
p. 10) but could only visualize them from his knowledge of Neoptolemus: for it was
45 a most barbarous custom for an enemy to display as a trophy the head of a man he
has slain: cf. 9.465, the Rutuli; 12.511 Turnus. The corpse was not even allowed to
burn where it was, amidst the blazing ruins of the king's palace, but was thrown
onto the desolate shore; this completes the picture of an inhuman hatred that persists
beyond death (Seneca seized on this: magnoque Iovi victima caesus Sigea premis
litora truncus [ Tro . 140] [slain as a victim to great Jupiter you lie headless on the
shore of Sigeum], cf. ibid . 55: caret sepulcro Priamus et flamma indiget ardente
Troia [Priam lacks a tomb and has no pyre though Troy is burning]).
72.
This has been shown conclusively by, among others, Thilo (preface to his
edition XXXIff.) and Leo (
Plaut
.
Forschungen
2
[Berlin, 1912] 42.3); now Norden
(443, 447) demonstrates; that the handling of
synaloiphe
also betrays the non-Virgil-
ian origin of the lines. The language not only contains very obvious mistakes (some
of which had already been pointed out by Peerlkamp) but displays throughout an
inability to use Virgilian diction: I would point to
servantem
,
aspicio
,
erranti
,
sibi
continue
infestos
,
praemetuens
,
invisa
,
exarsere
ignes
animo
,
subit
ira
. . .
ulcisci
,
parto
trium
-
pho
,
Iliadum
turba
,
exstinxisse
nefas
,
ferebar
: all these are echoes of Virgilian
diction but are un-Virgilian in choice of word, meaning or combination, and there
are too many examples in a few lines to be explicable by chance. The most recent
defenders of the authenticity of the passage (H.F. Fairclough,
Class
.
Phil
. 1 [1906]
221ff.; Gerloff,
Vindiciae
Vergilianae
[Diss. Jena, 1911]) are no more convincing
than their predecessors; how, for example, can one justify the expression
sceleratas
poenas
by referring to
sceleratum
limen
at 6.563 (see Norden
ad
loc
.)? The 'paral-
lel' scene at the beginning of
Odyssey
20 where the hero cannot decide whether to
kill the impudent slave-girls now or later and then Athena assures him of her help,
seems to me to bear so slight a resemblance to it that I find it hard to believe that it
46 would have occurred to Virgil's interpolator - though of course it may have done.
Gerloff's main error is his mistaken conclusion concerning the facts of the trans-
mission of this passage (see now also Leo's remark,
Monolog
in
Drama
, 5.1),
moreover he does not discuss the diction. Hartmann's article in favour of the lines,
Mnemosyne
(1905) 441ff. is so rhetorical that there is no way of refuting it.
47 73. Talia i a c t a b a m (588) [such were my wild words] i.e. not simply thoughts.
74. The groan of shock at Odyssey 12.371:

[Father Zeus and ye other blessed gods] etc.


regarded as a soliloquy.
48
75.
This has already been observed by Emmenessius; the borrowing is quite
clear:
Or
. 1137:




49 we were putting to the sword a good woman, that would be an infamous murder: but
instead the woman who killed their fathers and ruined their children will pay the
penalty on behalf of all Greece . . . there will be shouting, they will light fires to the
gods, praying that many blessings should come to you and me because we shed the
blood of an evil woman . . . ] (that is what is intended by sceleratas sumere poenas )


[it surely must not come about that Menelaus should thrive while your father and
you and your sister die; that he should have your home after taking his bride by
Agamemnon's spear]. The questions occiderit ferro Priamus [shall Priam have
fallen by the sword?] etc. are very clumsily substituted for Euripides' pattern of
clauses, and are weak imitations of such passages as 4.590: pro Iuppiter! ibit hic et
nostris inluserit advena regnis? [Ah, Jupiter! Is this stranger to make a mock of my
realm, and calmly go?] (where ire and inludere have not yet taken place) and 9.783:
unus homo . . . tantas strages i m p u n e per urbem ediderit? iuvenum primos tot
miserit Orco? [ will a single man have dealt such slaughter all over your town,
unpunished? Will he have sent so many of your finest youth to Orans?].

has been cited as a parallel for Troiae et patriae communis Erinys (573) [an aveng-
ing deity, a curse alike to Troy and to her homeland], but the source is clearly Or . continue
1388:

well-built citadel of Troy] (referring to Helen's beauty), and the Phrygii ministri
[Trojan servants] of 581 may also derive from the Orestes .
76. Conington, following Ti. Donatus, also considered this.
77.
quis
indomitas
tantus
dolor
excitat
iras
. . .
non
prius
aspicies
ubi
. . .
liqueris
Anchisen?
[what great bitterness rouses such ungovernable fury? . . . ought you not
first to see where you have left Anchises?].
50 78. Already in Homer ( Od . 14.68) Eumaeus says


tribe had perished utterly, since she has loosened the knees of many warriors].
79. Andromache:


dareus, you are no child of Zeus . . . may you perish, since you have destroyed the
glorious plains of Troy because of your beautiful eyes] ( Tro . 766; cf. Androm . 105,
248); Hecuba ( Tro . 1213).
80.
For example, Pylades in
Orestes
, see n. 75 above; Peleus (
Androm
. 602); the
chorus in
Electra
(479); Iphigenia (
Iph
.
Taur
. 356; the chorus at 439f.); Teucer (
Hel
.
72)

see the hateful image of the woman, the murderess who killed me and all the
Achaeans]. Virgil's Tyndaridis facies invisa [the hated image of the Tyndarid] is
strongly reminiscent of this.
52
81.
The difficulties in presenting this whole scene are admittedly alleviated by
the fact that it is Venus who describes the activities of the individual gods, while
Aeneas himself uses only words of a very general nature to describe his vision
(
apparent
dirae
facies
inimicaque
Troiae
numina
magna
deum
[622] [there were
revealed the shapes of dread, the giant powers of gods not friendly to Troy]).
82.
Iliad
20.47ff., beginning with Eris; Ares and Athena shout, each urging their
own side on to battle; Poseidon makes the earth tremble, so that Hades is frightened
and starts up from his chair; Zeus sends great peals of thunder from on high.
83.


citadel, and again, speeding along Simois over Callicolone].
54 84. Wörner in Roscher's Lex . I 185.
85. Tryph. 651:


the old man and his son, stole away Aeneas and Anchises, and took them far from
their homeland to Ausonia].
86.
The words
miraculo
magis
[more by a miracle] in Cassius Hemina's account
of the departure (schol. Veron. 2.717), and

the flames] in the Sibylline Oracle (5.9, 12.9) probably also belong to this tradition.
When Ovid says ( Ex P . 1.1.33) cum foret Aeneae cervix subiecta parenti dicitur ipsa
viro flamma dedisse viam [when Aeneas bore his father on his shoulders, the very
flames, they say, made a path for the hero], this can no longer be regarded as a
vague echo of Virgil, in the light of the other examples.
55 87. 8.524, 9.630.
56 88. The early commentators called it an auspicium maximum , Serv. on 693; we continue
know that any signs from heaven, not only lightning, counted as auspices.
89.
Servius points out that in the case of the youthful Servius Tullius this sign
was interpreted by Tanaquil as foretelling his future glory,
perita
caelestium
prodi
-
giorum
mulier
[a woman skilled in heavenly portents] (Livy 1.34.9); and again in
the case of Iulus' great descendant, Augustus,
Aeneid
8.680.
90.
De
Div
. 1.47, 106. Cf. also the prayer of the augurs in Livy 1.18:
Iuppiter
pater
:
si
est
fas
hunc
Numam
Pompilium
. . .
regem
Romae
esse
,
uti
tu
signa
nobis
certa
adclarassis
. . . [Father Jupiter, if it is fated that this Numa Pompilius should be
king in Rome, grant us a clear and certain sign].
57 91. Mommsen, Staatsrecht I 102.1.
92. Mommsen op. cit. 105.4.
93.
The earliest evidence is probably a coin from Aineia (sixth century; Bau-
meister,
Denkm
. Fig. 1015); then, apart from numerous pictorial representations,
58 Hellanicus (Dion. Hal. 1.46.4); also Naevius, who includes Anchises' wife as well
in the group leaving Troy: Servius on 3.10.
94.
She was called Eurydice in early epic (Paus. 10.26.1) and still in Ennius
(
Ann
. 37V). We do not know when or by whom Creusa was substituted; there was a
Creusa among the prisoners in Polygnotus' picture in the Lesche at Delphi (Paus.
loc. cit.; Robert,
Iliupersis
8); Apollodorus knows her as a daughter of Priam (3.12,
5.6: Hellanicus? Robert 62); Livy names her as Aeneas' wife (1.3), as do Dion. Hal.
(3.31.4), Pausanias loc. cit., schol. Lycophron 1263 etc. Our epitome of Apollodorus
does not mention Aeneas' wife in the departure scene (5.21), nor does Tryphiodorus
(651), nor significantly, since he gives such a wealth of detail in his narrative,
Quintus (13.300-52).
95.
The
Tabula
Iliaca
depicts the departure at two moments, at the city gate and
at the ship. At the city gate a woman can be seen between Ascanius and Aeneas, in
an attitude of mourning; she is unnamed but can surely be none other than Aeneas'
wife. Below, at the ship, this woman is no longer there: in other words she has been
lost between the two scenes (Paulcke op. cit. n. 29, 41.73f.). Pausanias (10.26.1)
records a tradition in which Creusa, as Aeneas' wife, was saved from slavery by
Aphrodite and the Mother of the Gods. If we combine the two traditions we come
close to Virgil; it is quite possible that Stesichorus had already shown Creusa,
59 unable to follow quickly enough and in danger of being taken captive, being saved
by a well-disposed divinity, just as he showed Hecuba being rescued by Apollo,
who carried her off to Lycia. According to a later tradition, Priam's daughter
Laodice also escapes captivity by a miracle: the earth swallows her up (Lycophron,
probably also Euphorion). Euripides uses this motif in the
Orestes
: Helen, just at the
moment when she is about to be put to death,


(1494f.) [she vanished from the chambers through the house, whether by magic
potions or the arts of magicians or stolen by the gods]. In later stories it is not
uncommon for a divinity to rescue a person from death or some other misfortune by
carrying them off: Leucippus (Parthen. 15), Britomartis (Antonin. 40); Byblis saved
from suicide by nymphs and turned into their

with them] (Antonin. 30). For similar beliefs in a later period see Rohde, Psyche II 2
375ff. Whether the Great Mother already plays a rôle in Stesichorus is doubtful; for continue
the early epic Robert rightly rejects the possibility (op. cit. n. 69, 62); but in any case
her intervention was not a motif created by Virgil.
96. In the same way the god Romulus-Quirinus appears to Julius Proculus


before] (Plut. Rom . 28). Similarly in Ovid, who however may have had the Virgil
passage before him, pulcher et humano maior . . . " prohibe lugere Quirites ' . . . iussit et
in tenues oculis evanuit auras ['handsome and larger than a human . . . 'do not let the
Romans grieve', he said, and vanished from their sight into thin air] ( Fast . 2.503).
97. Since female


the goddess on earth, the same is naturally true in her divine abode, and her servants
there enjoy immortality; by chance, we even know one of the


1078). Aphrodite abducts Phaethon


temple, a divine spirit] (Hesiod, Theog . 990). Galinthias becomes Hecate's


98.
11.586
cara
mihi
comitumque
foret
nunc
una
mearum
[she could have been
one of my companions still, and still dear to me].
60
99.
We might well believe that Virgil was thinking of the account of the rape of
Ganymede in the Homeric hymn to Aphrodite:




solable grief filled the heart of Tros: he did not know whither the heaven-sent wind
had caught up his dear son. Thereafter he mourned him always, unceasingly: but the
guide, slayer of Argus, told him everything on Zeus' orders, how his son would be
deathless and ageless like the gods]. Apart from this information, Tros is also
compensated with

turns to joy.
63 100. Leo, Deutsche Litt . Ztg . (1903) 595.
101.
nec
spes
opis
ulla
dabatur
[no hope of assistance remained]: Sabbadini is of
the opinion (op. cit. n. 14, 24) that this originally meant that there was no possibility
of helping Creusa: 747-800 would then be a later addition as a result of which these
words now have the inappropriate meaning that Aeneas was considering resuming
the fight, something that was quite out of the question in the circumstances. I do not
see why we should not take
spes
opis
quite literally ('hope for aid or support'):
Aeneas and his men have done what they could, no help is to be expected from man
or god, there is nothing left to do but make a final withdrawal. It is perfectly natural
that at this decisive moment he should think yet again 'supposing by some miracle
we could still be saved!', and yet be convinced at the same time that there was no
further spark of hope. Sabbadini's other alleged contradictions (Aeneas speaks of
portae
at 730 and 803, but of
porta
at 752; 748
curva
vallis
, whereas previously a
tumulus
had been named as the meeting-place) are even less persuasive.
102.
Set out in detail by Kehmptzow,
De
Quinti
Smyrn
.
fontibus
et
mythopoeia
(Diss. Kil. 1891), and in the review of this work by Noack,
Gött
.
Gel
.
Anz
. (1892)
769-812. On Tryphiodorus see Noack,
Hermes
27 (1892) 457-63;
Rhein
.
Mus
. 48
continue
(1893) 420-32. Since this excursus was written, the commonly held view mentioned
above has been contested by Kroll,
Studien
über
die
Komposition
der
Aeneis
in
Festschrift
C
.
F
.
W
.
Müller
zum
70
.
Geburtstag
gewidmet
(
=
Fleckeisens
Jahrbuch
64 Suppl. 27 [1900]) 161-9; similarly Norden,
Neue
Jahrbücher
7 (1901) 329 n. 1.
Both authors have, in my opinion, interpreted the relationship correctly, but for the
purpose of their argument they only refer briefly to the decisive factors. Since the
question is of such importance I thought it necessary to present my own more
detailed discussion none the less. Recently, P. Becker (
Rhein
.
Mus
. 68 [1913] 68-90)
has argued again for Quintus' dependence on Virgil; I have taken his main argu-
ments into account in what follows in so far as they refer to the passages under
consideration; Becker has also attempted to show that Quintus' account of the duel
between Achilles and Memnon (2.396ff.) makes use of the duel between Aeneas
and Turnus, and that his account of the boxing match (4.284ff.) draws on the
corresponding scene in
Aen
. 5. I do not refute that here, since I believe that any
unbiased reader will realize that Becker fails in his attempt.
103.
At this point Virgil is closer in the details to the version of Apollodorus
65 than Quintus is:


they had fled], nos abisse rati et vento petiisse Mycenas . . . iuvat ire et Dorica castra
desertosque videre locos litusque relictum (25-8) [we thought they had sailed for
Mycenae before the wind . . . we enjoyed going to look at the Greek camp and the
deserted space and the shore they had left].
66
104.
Quintus' narrative is clumsy, but that is what he means (cf. 39f., where it
would be bold to take

does not utter a word until he is tortured (cf. Koechly, Prolegomena p. xxxi); if that
was what he meant, Quintus' narrative would be even clumsier, for he would have
failed to mention what according to this interpretation is the main point, that Sinon
is silent until he pretends that the cruel tortures have forced him to speak; lines
370ff. and 387f., which say that he spoke as he did despite the torture, would then be
the height of clumsiness.
105.
This is not Virgil's invention, see p. 6 above; nevertheless it could of course
have been missing in the outline of the plot used by Quintus. It is certainly not to be
concluded from the absence of Priam that Quintus took an anti-Trojan position.
106.
He gives no explanation at all in the narrative itself, although, as Becker has
pointed out to me, in Odysseus' preceding speech we read


until our enemies drag us into the city, thinking they are bringing an offering to
Tritonis]: though of course they could not rely on this. In Apollodorus the horse is
pulled into the city before they discuss what to do with it.
67
107.
There is a verbal echo: in Virgil, Sinon has remained behind
in
utrumque
paratus
,
seu
versare
dolos
seu
certae
occumbere
morti
(61-2) [ready for either
outcome, whether success in his deceptions or certain death]; in Quintus he says



to die at the hands of the enemy or to escape, bringing great glory to the hopes of the
Argives]. It is not an unusual idea, and it could easily have occurred to the two continue
authors independently. Tryphiodorus gives the same remark to Odysseus:



infamous disgrace by a bloody death]; cf. also e.g. Eurip. Or . 1149ff. Nor is any-
thing proved by the comparison of undique visundi studio Troiana iuventus
circumfusa ruit certantque inludere capto (63-4) [anxious to look at him, the young
Trojans came hastening up and gathered round, outdoing each other in mockery of
the captive] with


rounded him from all sidles, standing round him].
108.
Nor is the change, that Sinon was not, as he perhaps was shown on the
Tabula
Iliaca
(the interpretation of the scene leaves room for a good deal of doubt),
led into the city
in
chains
; the version of the story that he had taken from his epitome
had itself already made this impossible.
69
109.
This warning was not given until the horse was already standing on the
citadel; Apollodorus, Virgil and Tryphiodorus are all agreed on this (although in
Apollodorus the debate about what to do with the horse also comes afterwards; and
only in his version does Cassandra interrupt this debate, and in Tryphiodorus the
most that may be doubted is whether he is referring to the moment when the horse
was pulled in; but in any case it is already inside the city); in Hygin.
Fab
. 108 Priam
70 has already given the command to bring the horse in and declared a joyous festival.
On the
Tabula
Iliaca
Cassandra meets the procession at the city gate; this does not
necessarily imply the existence of another version: the matter has obviously already
been decided here too. Quintus selects an even later moment when the festival is
already in full swing. He had to make this change, because he had put the renewal of
Laocoon's warnings and the miraculous serpents at the other point, as we have seen.
He and Tryphiodorus have some features in common, but hardly enough to suggest
a common source. These considerations tell against Becker's interpretation (op. cit.
n. 64, 86), which is factually incorrect in some parts and incomplete in others.
110. Rhein . Mus . 46 (1891) 517.
111.
Becker (op. cit. 85) disputes this: 'The god has given his first warnings
through
the
mouth
of his priest to no effect, now he gives a clearer warning
through
punishing
him
'. Becker does not adduce any analogies for a warning in the form of
the
punishment
of a faithful servant through whose mouth the god has spoken; it
would, I think, be hard to find one.
112.
Nor did the ancient commentators on Virgil know anything of it; they
simply contrast the
historia
and the Virgilian version. Anyone who is familiar with
the mythological capabilities of these scholiasts will not wish to draw conclusions
here based on their silence.
71
113.
For a different attempt at a solution, which I find unsatisfactory, see Wag-
ner,
Apollod
.
epit
.
Vat
. 233.
72 114. See above p. 32.
115. Cf. also Iliad 20.344,


great marvel that I see with my eyes . . . here lies my spear on the ground, and I see no
sign of the man at whom I threw it]. break
73 116. Cf. Wörner in Roscher Lex . I 182.
117.
Becker (op. cit. 87) is however quite wrong to think that in his description
of the death of Priam Quintus, writing from a point of view directly opposite to that
of Virgil, 'carefully avoided anything that might arouse sympathy, indignation or
revulsion'; that is exactly what the description at 244ff. is intended to do. Nor does
Pyrrhus believe what Priam says, but exults that he is taking away his enemy's
dearest possession, his life (239f.); Becker has obviously overlooked this.
74
118.
conversa
cuspide
(81) [he swung his lance round], by which Virgil cannot
have meant a trident. The only example in the
Thesaurus
where
cuspis
=
tridens
is
Ovid's
deus
aequoreas
qui
cuspide
temperat
undas
[the god who controls the waves
of the sea with his trident] (
Met
. 12.580); that is a completely unambiguous meto-
nymy, quite unlike the use of
cuspis
in our passage.
75 119. [Longinus] On the Sublime 9.14.
120.

[daughter of Boreas, she was reared in distant caves among her father's storm-
winds] (Soph. Antig . 983);

seven-chambered cave of Boreas] (Callim. Del . 65).
121.
This trident and its purpose are known to Lucan also:
si
rursus
tellus
pulsu
laxata
tridentis
Aeolii
tumidis
inmittat
fluctibus
eurum
(2.456) [even if the earth,
opened again by Aeolus with his trident, let loose the East wind on the swollen
waves]; it would be a remarkable coincidence if he had substituted it for Virgil's
lance on his own initiative.
76
122.
There are no significant correspondences in the details in Virgil and
Quintus. When he describes the mountain of the winds, Quintus lays emphasis on
the sounds they make:


ing noisily in their hollow cave, and ever the dreadful roaring din echoed around],
whereas Virgil emphasizes the character of the personified winds: vasto rex Aeolus
antro luctantis ventos tempestatesque sonoras imperio premit ac vinclis et carcere
frenat ; illi indignantes magno cum murmure montis circum claustra fremunt (52-6)
[in the great spaces of a cavern they wrestle, and hurricanes roar: but Aeolus, the
king who rules them, confines them in their prison, disciplined and curbed. They
race from door to bolted door, and all the mountain reverberates with the noise of
their resentment]. Virgil could have drawn the inspiration for this portrayal of
Aeolus from a word of Apollonius, in whose epic Hera sends Iris to Aeolus


clear sky] and tells him to hold back the winds except for Zephyrus


123.
85f. ~
Od
. 5.295f.; 87 ~
Od
. 10.122; 88f. ~
Od
. 5. 293f.; 90 ~
Od
. 12.415;
91 ~
Od
. 5.305,
Il
. 15.628, Apollon. 2.580; 92-101 ~
Od
. 5.297, 306-10; 102 ~
Od
.
5.313; 103 ~
Il
. 15.627; 105 Apollon. 2.583; on 106f. see above; 113ff. ~
Od
.
12.411ff.; 118f. ~
Od
. 12.67f.
77
124.
furit
aestus
harenis
[the billows are seething with sands] can be paralleled,
for example, in Sophocles
Antig
. 585


ima exaestuat unda verticibus nigramque alte subvectat harenam [the bottom continue
of the sea seethes and swirls and spews up black sand from its depths.
78
125.
Liedloff (
De
tempestatis
. . .
descriptionibus
quae
apud
poetas
Romanos
saec
.
I
post
Chr
.
leguntur
[descriptions of storms in Roman poets of the first century BC],
Diss. Leipzig [1884] 17 n. 1) long ago pointed this out, and listed details from the
description of the peaceful part of the voyage; comparable passages from the
ec
-
phrasis
[desription] of the storm are:
undasque
miscent
imber
et
fluctus
suas
[the
rain and the waves mingle their waters] (Seneca,
Ag
. 490),


se classis premit et prora prorae nocuit et lateri latus [the fleet crushes itself, one
prow damages another, one ship's side another] ( Ag . 497),


another] (Quintus 517), nil ratio et usus audet . . . remus , effugit manus [reason and
practice are of no avail . . . the oar slips from their hands] ( Ag . 507, 509),


[thrown about helplessly, in their confusion they could not lay their hand on the oar]
(Quintus 497), terraque et igne victus et pelago iacet [he lies overcome by land and
fire and the sea] ( Ag . 556),

whelmed at once by the land and in the barren sea] (Quintus 589).
126.
See Liedloff op. cit. 4; it is only by chance (Athen. 8.338a) that we know
that the description of this storm by Timotheus in his
Nauplius
was famous. We may
add Philetas, in whose poem Odysseus tells Aeolus


capture of Troy and how their ships were scattered while they journeyed from Ilium]
(Parthen. 2), and Callimachus, who included the story in the first book of his Aitia
(schol. Iliad 13.66). We should also remember the extravaganza Nauplius in
Heron's mechanical theatre.
127. Ehrwald, Philol . 53 (1894) 729.
79
128.
Schneidewin indicated this in his observation on Hippolytus (
Refutat
.
omn
.
haeres
. ed. Duncker-Schneidewin, 252) and on Epiphanius
Adv
.
Haer
. vol. II Book
I.21.3, as Knaack has opportunely reminded us:
Rhein
.
Mus
. 48 (1893) 632; see now
also Norden 254.
129. Immisch, Rhein . Mus . 52 (1897) 127.
130.

Argives]; Homeric

then the Trojans will have to pay for their impious act. This is a long way from
Virgil's iamdudum sumite poenas : hoc Ithacus velit et magno mercentur Atridae
80 (2.104-5) [it is more than time for you to be taking vengeance on me: how that
would please the Ithacan, and what would the sons of Atreus not give in return for
it!], because in that case their evil intention is carried out by an enemy's hand. break