2— The War against Islam and the Muslims at Home
1. Discussions of Fernando's foreign policy have not given enough attention to his internal policy as an indication of his motives and priorities. It seems to me that there would have been some consistency between the two. The view that Fernando was motivated solely by a desire to crusade against Islam, presented by José M. Doussinague, La política internacional de Fernando el Católico (Madrid, 1944), does not jibe with Fernando's consistent encouragement of Mudejarism in the lands of the Crown of Aragon. Andrew C. Hess's The Forgotten Frontier: A History of the Sixteenth-Century Ibero-African Frontier (Chicago, 1978) emphasizes the increasing separation of Christian and Islamic civilizations along the Ibero-African frontier as a result of the conflict between Hapsburg Spain and the Ottoman empire. Because the focus is on the conflictive character of the Christian—Muslim interface, the vitality of religioethnic pluralism under Fernando's Crown of Aragon is lost from view, as are the possible alternatives to Castilian Mudejar policy and the resultant Morisco problem. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdom , II: 534-584, presents a more balanced view of Fernando's Mediterranean policy, in which confrontation with Islamic powers and the furthering of Aragon's Mediterranean interests often coincide.
2. Vicens i Vives, Barcelona , I: 365-424; J. Angel Sesma Muñoz, El establecimiento de la Inquisición en Aragón (1484-1486): documentos para su estudio (Zaragoza, 1987?), pp. 10-24; and García Cárcel, Inquisición , pp. 47-82.
3. Burns, Islam under the Crusaders , pp. 37-45.
4. Robert I. Burns, "Social Riots on the Christian-Moslem Frontier: Thirteenth Century Valencia," American Historical Review 66 (1961): 378-400, esp. 398.
5. Boswell, Royal Treasure , pp. 372-400; Ferrer i Mallol, Frontera , pp. 41-43.
6. Gual Camarena, "Mudéjares, valencianos," pp. 473-474; see also Ferrer i Mallol, Frontera , pp. 21-29, who demonstrates that official intervention prevented anti-Mudejar violence in 1316, 1331, 1369, and 1391 in the wake of anti-Jewish pogroms and 1397-1399 when the Christians were organizing for a crusade against North Africa.
7. Hinojosa Montalvo, "Relaciones," pp. 101-103. The disturbances caused in the morerías by a Muslim of Alcala claiming to have been sent by God might have added to the atmosphere of tension; see Piles Ros, Bayle General , p. 299, document no. 819.
8. Gual Camarena, "Mudéjares valencianos," p. 479.
9. Luis Suárez Fernández, Política internacional de Isabel la Católica (Valladolid, 1965), I: 249-255; Antonio de la Torre, Documentos sobre relaciones internacionales de los Reyes Católicos (Barcelona, 1949), I: 408-411, 444-445; and Doussinague, Política , pp. 45-52.
10. ACA: C 3605: 87r (13 December 1480).
11. ACA: C 3605: 87r.
12. ARV: B 1156: 874r-v (12 October 1480) and ARV: B 1157: 265v-266r (27 June 1482) are examples of licenses for bearing arms granted to Muslims. ARV: B 1160: 270r (16 August 1491)—the justice of Onda confiscates Muslims' arms.
13. AMV: g 3 29: 247v-248r (15 February 1481). While informing Fernando of their own concern about the Mudejars' intentions in the wake of Turkish successes, the jurates of Valencia noted that the seigneurs would prefer to maintain the status quo instead of taking action against the Mudejars.
14. ACA: C 3665: 72r (23 April 1487)—"cascun moro segons se diu te en sa casa armes sobrades moltes mes de les que cascu d'ells ha mester." ARV: C 650: 242r-243v (12 April 1502).
15. AMV: g 3 29: 231r-v (6 September 1480).
16. AMV: g 3 29: 247v-248r (15 February 1481).
17. Suárez Fernández, Política , II: 13-15, 52-55, 144-149; and La Torre, Documentos , II: 565-567, 569-570; III: 547-553.
18. ACA: C 3606: 107r (11 February 1480).
19. ACA: C 3665: 72r (23 April 1487).
20. ACA: C 3665: 72r.
21. Rachel Arié, L'Espagne musulmane au temps des Nasrides (1232-1492) (Paris, 1973), pp. 172-174, discusses the Nasrid embassy to the Mamluk court; Suárez Fernández, Política , II: 149, treats Qa'it * Bay's * warning to Fernando; and Doussinague, Política , pp. 515-517, transcribes Fernando's letter to the king of Naples in response to the Mamluk warning. Hess, Frontier , pp. 60-61, 228, gives an account of the mission of Kemal Reis in response to the Nasrid appeal. ARV: C 137: 192r-193r (29 October 1494), which concerns the capture of Christians of
Biar by Turkish galleys operating out of Bône, confirms the Ottoman presence in peninsular waters. For a later and more serious manifestation of the connection between Spanish Muslims and Ottomans, see Andrew Hess, "The Moriscos: An Ottoman Fifth Column in Sixteenth-Century Spain," American Historical Review 74 (1969): 1-25.
22. Although Arié, L'Espagne musulmane , p. 173, conjectures that Muhammad XII (Boabdil), in power in Granada after 29 April 1487, was responsible for sending the ambassador to Cairo, I would suggest that al-Zaghal took this diplomatic initiative. This would allow for the arrival of the Nasrid ambassador in Cairo in later 1486, since the Islamic year 892 A. H. is equivalent to A. D. 1486-1487. If the poetic appeal to the Ottoman court had any relation to the embassy to Cairo, and if Mudejar envoys had established contact with Kemal Reis before 23 April 1487, then an earlier date makes more sense. Of course, there need not have been a precise temporal conjunction between the appeals to Cairo and Istanbul.
23. Hinojosa Montalvo, "Relaciones," pp. 111-128, treats Valencia's commerce with Granada and Mudejar participation. ARV: C 707 contains licenses for travel to Almería granted to Mudejars; examples are 789v-790r (17 May 1479), and 889v-890r (30 June 1481) for commerce and 786v-787r (12 May 1479) and 891v-892r (5 July 1481) for family affairs.
24. ARV: C 305: 210r-v (30 June 1483), and ARV: B 1157: 590r (11 March 1484) are cases of Mudejars who traveled to the sultanate of Granada without license. They were all punished with the penalty of enslavement.
25. ARV: B 1159: 9v (27 March 1488)—license to Mahomat Fuçey of Bellreguart to go to Almería for one year "per traure alguns parents que te en la ciutat e per alguns fets e negocis quey ha a fer." See also n.23.
26. See the discussion of "Years of Crisis: 1500-1503" in this chapter.
27. Some sense of the fear inspired by the Turks can be had from a reading of contemporary chroniclers, such as Bernáldez, Memorias , pp. 103-107; or Hernando del Pulgar, Crónica de los señores Reyes Católicos , Benito Monfort, ed. (Valencia, 1780), pp. 172-173.
28. See, for example, Charles Emmanuel Dufourcq, L'Espagne catalane et le Maghrib aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles (Paris, 1966); and Hinojosa Montalvo, "Relaciones," pp. 91-106.
29. ARV: B 1157: 327r-v (23 October 1482) and AMV: g 3 30: 114r-v (24 October 1482).
30. AMV: g 3 29:179r-180r (9 December 1479), 182v-183v (20 January 1480) and 183v-186r (21 January 1480) deal with the problems of Perot Miquel in Almería; and 209r (5 May 1480) notes that the Miquel affair was satisfactorily resolved, and that the sultan of Granada owes money to the heirs of a Christian merchant.
31. Hinojosa Montalvo, "Relaciones," pp. 111-116; Guiral-Hadziiossif, Valence , pp. 341-345; and see n. 23 for commerce and family business. ARV: C 707: 820r-v (19 April 1480) is a license to Çahat Galip of Játiva to go to Almería "per saber scriure e legir lo morisch." Between 12 May 1479 and 5 July 1481, forty-six licenses for travel to Almería were granted to Mudejars.
32. ARV: B 1156: 735r-v (15 May 1480). ARV: B 1156: 704r-v (30 Decem-
ber 1479)—license to remain in the kingdom for one year is granted to Ali from Granada and his black servant Caet.
33. ACA: C 3633: 57r-v (25 February 1479) and ARV: C 302: 47v-48r (14 June 1479) are cases of Christians of Orihuela captured by Muslim almugavers from Vera.
34. Ferrer i Mallol, Frontera , pp. 196-222, discusses the earlier, short-lived Hermandades of 1394 and 1396, as well as that of 1399. Augustin Nieto Fernández, "Hermandad entre las aljamas de moros y las villas de la governacion de Orihuela en el siglo XV," in Primer Congreso de Historia del País Valenciano (Valencia, 1980), 2: 749-760; and Juan Torres Fontes, "La Hermandad de moros e cristianos para el rescate de cautivos," in Actas del I Simposio Internacional de Mudejarismo (Madrid-Teruel, 1981), 499-508. On pp. 507-508, Torres Fontes transcribes Isabel's order to the adelantado of the kingdom of Murcia.
35. ARV: B 1157: 119r-120r (15 September 1481). For a detailed treatment of this problem in the fourteenth century, see Ferrer i Mallol, Frontera , pp. 47-186. In the fourteenth century the problem was considerably more serious, owing to the greater power of the sultanate of Granada and to a larger and more restive Mudejar population.
36. ACA: C 3663: 117r-v (10 February 1483), and ARV: B 1157: 498v-500r (10 February 1483).
37. ARV: MR 92: 321r (23 January 1482).
38. ACA: C 3665: 20v-21r (5 December 1486); see chap. 1.
39. ARV: C 304 71r-v (26 May 1480).
40. ARV: C 126: 124r-v (3 March 1480), is the case of the Mudejar from Nompot; and ARV: C 131: 90v-91r (30 July 1483) concerns the case of Ali Jabbeu of Aspe, accused "de crimine intercipiendi et captivandi cristianos." Torres Fontes, "Hermandad," p. 500, notes that the Mudejars involved in this activity were usually from the morerías of Elche, Crevillente, Elda, Aspe, Novelda, Monóvar, Chinosa, and Petrel located in the region of Orihuela.
41. ACA: C 3605: 85v-86r (7 December 1480), for the Vall de Uxó, and 118r (28 September 1481), for Murcia.
42. ARV: B 1157: 156r (7 January 1482).
43. See n.24.
44. ACA: C 3649: 150v-151v (6 April 1492). Once the war had ended, the commander of the Order of Santiago, lord of the Valle de Ricote in Murcia, asked that these travel restriction on his Muslim vassals be lifted.
45. ACA: C 3606: 65v-66v (12 January 1483).
46. ACA: C 3665: 20v-21r (5 December 1486). For the Moriscos' observance of the c id * al-kabir * , see Cardaillac, Morisques et Chrétiens , p. 35.
47. ACA: C 3665: 72r (23 April 1487).
48. Hinojosa Montalvo, "Relaciones," pp. 103-104 and 133-134, document no. 9, for the response of the jurates of Valencia to the sultan's concerned queries.
49. Ferrer i Mallol, Els sarraïns , pp. 106-109, shows that the authorities imposed some restrictions on Mudejar movement south of the Jijona River during the fourteenth century; for the fifteenth century, see Piles, "Moros de
realengo," pp. 258-261. While Piles is correct in stating, "Las incidencias de la guerra de Granada repercutieron sensiblemente en los cambios de lugar y residencia de los moros valencianos," his subsequent assertion that the number of Muslims who traveled beyond the Jijona in the two or three years before the fall of Granada was greater than in previous years is inaccurate. This can be said only for the year 1491. Piles does not present statistics, nor does he suggest specific reasons for the fluctuating number of licenses granted.
50. Licenses for Mudejar travel beyond the Jijona River are found in the registers ARV: B 1156-1162.
51. Ladero Quesada, Mudéjares de Castilla , pp. 307-309, document no. 139 (20 July 1501), is an order prohibiting the entry of all Muslims into the kingdom of Granada; and pp. 312-314, document no. 142 (21 September 1501), describes the Muslims of Murcia as having been converted to Christianity.
52. Some examples are ARV: C 148: 178r-v (10 June 1493)—a litigation between Seydi Melvix and other Muslims from the city of Granada (probably now residing in Valencia) and the bailiff general of the kingdom "beyond the Jijona"; ARV: C 148: 214r-v (4 September 1493)—Fernando settles Muslims from the city of Granada on lands held by the bailiff general near Orihuela, and the new vassals swear to remain there for five years; ARV: C 596: 119r-v (27 February 1493)—Muslims from Almería have letters of franquesa exempting them from all taxes in the kingdom of Valencia; ARV: B 1160: 41v (5 March 1491)—license to travel to Almeria is granted to Muslims originally from Almería now living in the city of Valencia; ARV: B 1160: 354r-355r (26 November 1491)—a Muslim of Manises, once a faqih * in Málaga, is granted license to go to Baza to bring a relative from there to Valencia; and ARV: B 1160: 424r (31 March 1492)—a Muslim from Málaga is to become a seigneurial vassal in Novelda. See also chap. 1.
53. ARV: B 1159: 9v (27 March 1488)—a Muslim of Bellreguart, near Gandía, is granted license to go to the city of Granada to fetch some relatives; and ARV: B 1160: 18v (28 January 1491)—a Muslim of the Vall de Uxó is granted license to go to Almería to fetch his mother and sister.
54. ARV: B 1159: 251r-252r (25 October 1489)—Muslims, originally from Vera, come from Oran to speak with Fernando regarding the settlement in Valencia of others from Vera still in Oran; ARV: B 1159: 252v-253r (25 October 1489)—Muslims, originally from Vera, come from Oran and are allowed to return to Vera; ARV: B 1159: 265v (12 November 1489)—a Muslim from Almería is granted license to go to Tunis to fetch his wife; and ARV: B 1159: 281v-282r (15 December 1489)—Muslims, originally from Vera, come from Oran to relocate in the Valle de Ricote in Murcia.
55. ARV: B 1160: 554v-555r (27 October 1492), and 555v-556r (30 October 1492)—ransomed slaves, originally from Málaga, are granted license to visit family in Málaga and Granada, whence they will return; and ARV: B 1160: 703v (23 July 1493)—a woman from Málaga, having resided in Valencia for two years, is granted license to return to Granada "per fer sos affers."
56. ARV: B 1160: 646v-647r (26 March 1493).
57. Hess, Frontier , pp. 11-25, contrasts the political and military weakness of the Islamic West with the strength and gunpowder technology of the unified
Castile and Aragon. See also Jamil. M. Abun-Nasr, A History of The Maghrib (Cambridge, 1975), pp. 119-166.
58. Doussinague, Política , pp. 52-229, 483-493, and Fernand Braudel, "Les Espagnols et l'Afrique du Nord de 1492 a 1577," Revue Africaine 69 (1928): 184-233, present contrasting points of view, the latter emphasizing Fernando's more worldly motives. Taking into account Fernando's Mudejar policy in Aragon, I tend to agree with Braudel in qualifying the picture of Fernando as an indefatigable crusader painted by Doussinague. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdom , II: 534-584, strikes a reasonable balance between the two viewpoints. On the problem of defending the coasts of the postconquest kingdom of Granada, see Ana María Vera Delgado, La última frontera medieval: la defensa costera en el obispado de Málaga en tiempos de los Reyes Católicos (Málaga, 1986).
59. Jacqueline Guiral, "Les relations commerciales du royaume de Valence avec la Berbérie au XVe siècle," Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez 10 (1974): 99-131; and Suárez Fernández, Política , III: 28-31, IV: 24-27, and V: 73-76. Some examples of Christian commerical activity in the Maghrib are ARV: C 137: 214v-215r (7 December 1484)—Andreu Castellano, a merchant of Valencia, transports "certes robes" from Almería to the Maghrib; ARV: C 246: 4v-5r (16 March 1498)—Matheu de Cardona of Messina, Fernando's agent in Tunis, sells Sicilian wheat valuing 4,000 gold ducats; ARV: C 304: 146r-147r (13 December 1480)—a Portuguese squadron captures the caravel of the Valencian merchant Daniel Valleriola, "lo qua! con su mercaderia andava a les partes de Barberia assi como siempre es acostumbrado de aquella nuestra ciutat de Valencia muchos navios ir e venir a las dichas partes de Barberia"; ARV: B 1160: 884r (10 July 1494)—Bernat Rabaça sells wine in Oran on behalf of the Valencian Noffre Puig; and ACA: C 3549: 118r-120r (1 September 1485)—the city of Valencia sends a ship laden with goods to be exchanged for needed wheat in Oran.
60. Guiral, "Relations commerciales," pp. 107-111. However, Guiral's article needs some correction. Her graph and tables on pp. 123-124 and 131 suggest that there were not any Maghriban merchants in Valencia between 1493 and 1502, when, in fact, the registers ARV: B 1160 (e.g., 915v-916r), B 1161 (e.g., 15v-16r) and B 1162 (e.g., 123v-124r) contain safe-conducts permitting one year of residence in the kingdom to Maghriban merchants. In 1500 two safe-conducts were issued, one to a Muslim from Bougie—ARV: B 1162: 123v-124r (14 December 1500)—and one, an extension of the safe-conduct to a Maghriban, originally from Málaga, who had been in the kingdom since 1495-ARV: B 1162: 3v-4v (16 January 1500). No safe-conducts for Maghriban merchants were issued in 1501.
61. Some examples are ACA: C 3610: 161r (25 February 1493)—as compensation for his goods confiscated in the Maghrib, Anthoni Johan captures Maghriban "persones de importancia"; ARV: B 194: 156r-162r (1494)—fifteen Muslims and a Jew of Bône are captured while transporting wheat to Bône; and ARV: B 195: 113r-114r (1502)—two Muslims from Fez bound for Mecca are captured by a Christian ship.
62. The registers ARV: B 194 (1494-1497) and B 195 (1502-1503), entitled "Cautivos," contain numerous examples of these victims.
63. ARV: B 1160: 937r-v, 951r-v (31 August 1494).
64. Jacqueline Guiral, "La piratería, el corso: sus provechos y ganancias en el siglo XV," in Nuestra Historia (Valencia, 1980), 3: 269-270; idem, Valence , pp. 106-110.
65. AMV: g 3 29: 182r-v (27 January 1480).
66. AMV: g 3 33: 26r (4 August 1496).
67. ARV: B 1157: 312r-v (21 September 1482) and 312v-313r (23 September 1482).
68. ACA: C 3550: 116r-118r (31 March 1488), AMV: 93 31: 198r-v (8 February 1487), AMV 93 33: 132v-133r (23 May 1498), 184r-185r (6 June 1499), and 214v-215r (2 March 1500) are all concerned with the construction of defenses at Oropesa. ARV: C 138: 11v-12v (6 January 1496) notes the importance of Guardamar for coastal defense, although in ARV: C 311: 201r-v (16 June 1501), Fernando points out to the governor of Orihuela that Muslims are entering the kingdom through Guardamar without resistance. The documentation also mentions other fortifications near Orihuela—ARV: C 151: 118r-119r (4 March 1497)—and at Jávea—ARV: C 303: 144v-146r (13 February 1480).
69. ARV: C 248: 15v-17v (28 December 1493); ARV: C 158: 83v-84v (6 September 1502); ARV: B 1162: 318v-319v (11 March 1502); ACA: C 3610: 126r-127v (28 December 1492); and ACA: C 3570: 60r-v (30 August 1492), 63v-64v (2 September 1492), and 71r-72r (18 September 1492).
70. ARV: B 1158: 62r-v (5 August 1485), 124r-v (17 November 1485) and ARV: B 1160: 308r (11 October 1491)—ships from Peñiscola capture Maghriban galleys at sea. ACA: C 3569: 85v-86r (3 October 1491)—Muslims are captured at sea near Tortosa; and ACA: C 3607: 88v (12 January 1495)—the same near Alicante. The efforts of the officials of coastal towns to keep each other informed about corsair movements are themselves indicative of a more effective system of coastal vigilance. See also Guiral-Hadziiossif, Valence , pp. 131-140.
71. Doussinague, Política , pp. 53-67, and Braudel, "Afrique du Nord," pp. 203-208, agree that the crusade against Africa had as one of its motives the elimination of the danger of the Maghriban corsairs, among whom the refugees from Granada proved to be Spain's bitterest enemies.
72. See the discussion under the heading "Years of Crisis: 1500-1503" in this chapter.
73. ACA: C 3563: 66r-v (3 December 1481), ACA: C 3561: 197r-198r (6 April 1496), ARV: C 131: 133v-134v (28 August 1483), ARV: C 133: 134v-136r (18 January 1486), ARV: C 304: 135v-136r (28 November 1480), ARV: C 305: 159r-v (5 September 1482), and ARV: C 596: 310r-v (3 November 1500), all deal with the Mercedarians' activities of ransoming captives in North Africa or raising funds for that purpose.
74. ARV: C 137: 192r-193r (29 October 1494). Normally, the municipal government of Biar gave the funds to the Mercedarians, but in this case the funds were given directly to a native of Biar who had to ransom himself and his son, still captive in Bône. Orihuela also had special funds set aside for ransoming Christians held captive in Granada—ARV: C 302: 47v-48r (14 June 1479).
75. For example, ARV: C 134: 135r-v (26 March 1488)—a man of Benicassim who, along with his wife, had been a prisoner of the Muslims for fifteen
years is still trying to raise the ransom money for his wife; and ARV: C 707: 915r-v (4 June 1479)—Muslim vassals of the Count of Oliva are granted license to go to Algiers to ransom the Count's Christian vassals.
76. LaTorre, Documentos , III: 178-181, document nos. 3-6.
77. ARV: C 309: 94r-v (16 April 1493).
78. These licenses are found in ARV: C 707, for example, 789v-790r (17 May 1479) to Mahomat Monem of Mislata "per mercadejar"; 875v-876r (21 May 1481) to Amet Talio of Castellón "per veure hun germa seu"; 795v-796r (12 January 1480) to Azmet Benulini, alias Hoffri, of Valencia "per recaptar una herencia de la mare de aquell"; 793v-794r (10 January 1480) to Mahomat Abenferis of Cuartell "per apendre de letra morisch"; 917r-v (12 November 1491) to Maomat Alfaqui of Avila (Castile) "va en romeria''; and 857r-v (18 May 1481) to Çahat Alagari "per veure terra."
79. ARV: MR 4570: 8r-12r (30 September to 9 October 1486)—officials of Alicante grant license to emigrate to forty-four Muslims of Monforte, a royal morería near Alicante, and collect the required emigration duties. ARV: B 1158: 365r-366r (14 December 1486)—Fernando expresses concern that the said duties were not collected and that the bailiff general's prerogative of issuing emigration licenses was usurped. ARV: C 424: 33r-v (27 December 1487)—when Yuçeff b. Yahye is chosen to succed his father Yahye b. Axer as sub- qadi * of Játiva, it is noted that "pater tui Axer Abenyahye [should read Yahye Abenaxer] ... ad terras Barberie sive Africe totaliter se transtulit perpetuo in terris illis infidelium moraturus ... in eadem moreria remanere voluisti." In the Corts of Orihuela of 1488 all further Mudejar emigration was prohibited.
80. Some examples are ARV: B 1161: 320v-321r (30 September 1496)—Ali Tuneçi from Tunis is now living in the Foya de Buñol; ARV: B 1431: 324r-343r (10 January 1493)—the case of Azmet Çahat from Tunis, now living in Valencia; and ARV: B 1431: 344r-375r (29 October 1492)—the case of Abdalla Alfaqui from Tunis, now living in Ondara.
81. ARV: B 1431: 192r-v (18, January 1492).
82. That such vengeful Muslims were present in Valencia is suggested by the career of Caçim from Granada—ARV: B 195: 65r-v (30 April 1502).
83. ARV: C 126: 124r (3 March 1480)—"fonch detengut en preso en lo castell de Galinera Taher Alazrach moro de la dita vila vassall nostre per ço com fonch inculpat de crim de collera e donada per la dita raho sentencia."
84. ARV: C 311: 254v-255r (6 June 1502).
85. ARV: B 195: 65r-v (30 April 1502).
86. ARV: B 1162: 92r-v (22 September 1500). After attacking Calpe, Maghriban corsairs "an exit en terras algunes scoltes e adalils perque ah millor seguretat los dits moros puixen venir e tornar en les dites parts." One of these spies was captured in Ondara by the local lord, although Mudejars of Ondara were not specifically implicated in the affair.
87. AMV: g 3 33: 249r (2 April 1501).
88. ARV: C 596: 147r-v (7 June 1494).
89. ARV: C 650: 243r (12 April 1502).
90. ARV: B 1162: 428v-429r (1 April 1503).
91. See n. 60. Guiral's data, "Relations commerciales," pp. 123-124 and
131, is accurate for the years before 1493. ARV: C 707 shows that between 1484 and 1491 there were no licenses for travel to the Maghrib granted to Mudejars. There was a very slight resumption of Mudejar travel in 1491: six licenses were granted, although three were to Castilians and one to an Aragonese Mudejar. Unfortunately, there are no registers following ARV: C 707, which terminates in 1491. As Maghriban merchants continued to come to Valencia throughout the 1490s, even during the years of the crusade against Africa, there is no reason why Mudejars should not have resumed their visits to the Maghrib, particularly when one considers that the majority of the Mudejars had been traveling to Tunis, a city with which Fernando maintained consistent commercial relations. ACA: C 3568: 132v-134r (15 February 1496) shows that the Mudejar Yahye Bellvis was active in the Mediterranean spice trade and had business in Alexandria, Naples, and Tunis.
92. For instance, in 1486. See n. 79.
93. Boswell, Royal Treasure , p. 375, notes that in 1365 the Christians of Valencia induced Pedro IV to curtail the emigration of Mudejars for fear that they might betray secrets to the Maghriban enemy. However, in the midfourteenth century the Marinid and Hafsid * states presented a greater threat to Aragon than was the case during Fernando's reign. The reasons behind the prohibition of Mudejar emigration by the Corts of 1488 were economic, that is, a seigneurial interest in keeping their lands populated with Muslim vassals.
94. Boswell, Royal Treasure , pp. 318-320, contrasts the desire of Valencia's Mudejars to emigrate with the relative contentment of the Mudejars of Aragon-Catalonia. He explains the latter group's behavior by their greater acclimatization to Christian rule. Certainly, another century of life in Christian Valencia would have made the Mudejars less anxious to depart.
95. Burns, Islam under the Crusaders , pp. 37-45; Boswell, Royal Treasure , pp. 372-400; and Piles Ros, Bayle General , p. 299, document no. 819.
96. ACA: C 3633: 79v-80r (25 February 1479), and ARV: C 139: 72v-73v (19 May 1495), discuss the attack of Muslims of Resalany on Dos Aguas to free Muslims held prisoner there. ARV: C 148: 148v-149r (12 February 1493)—a Muslim is freed by coreligionists from the jail of the seigneur of Albatera.
97. ARV: B 1160: 17v (25 January 1491)—"Dos mors la hun del loch de Mizlata l'altre de la ciutat de Xativa sen hagen portat huna sclava mora çabia del dit Don Altobello Centelles la qual sen han portat del bordell de la moreria de la dita ciutat."
98. For example, ARV: C 148: 142v-143v (25 January 1493)—the amin * and adelantats of Matet resist the efforts of the governor's officials to seize two Muslims who had fled from the place of Gaibiel.
99. ARV: C 127: 125v (27 May 1480); ARV: C 148: 30v-31r (6 July 1492), 193v-194r (17 July 1493); ARV: B 1158: 423r-v (21 May 1487); B 1159: 6r (17 March 1488); B 1160: 295v-296r (23 August 1491), 417r-v (15 March 1492), and 551r-v (22 October 1492).
100. ARV: B 1159: 339r (12 June 1490).
101. ARV: C 127: 125v; C 129: 1v-2v (23 January 1481); and C 130: 11v-12r (30 May 1481) all concern this case.
102. ARV: C 156: 200r-v (19 April 1502).
103. ARV: B 1431: 341v (26 October 1493)—while sentencing Azmet Çahat, a Muslim from Tunis accused of aiding runaways, the bailiff general notes the "moltes fuytes que de poch temps en qa se son seguides en la present ciutat e Regne"; and B 1431: 372v (31 October 1493)—the bailiff general expresses the same concern in the case of Abdalla Alfaqui, accused of the same crime.
104. ARV: C 650: 251r-253r.
105. The records of the aljamas' purchasing and ransoming of Muslim slaves are located in the registers ARV: B 217-221, especially B 219: 140v-528v for the sale of the slaves from Málaga. The register ARV: B 325 records the debts owed by various aljamas for the purchase of Muslim slaves.
106. ARV: B 219: 239r-240r (13 October 1488).
107. ARV: B 1431: 358r-v (10 December 1492)—the testimony of Maymo ben Çabit.
108. Boswell, Royal Treasure , p. 394.
109. For instance, Abun-Nasr, Maghrib , pp. 159-163; Doussinague, Política , p. 75, notes that Ruhama offered to surrender the city of Oran to the Monarchs on the same terms that had been offered to the Muslims of Granada.
110. It is abundantly clear from the documentation that the victims of Mudejar violence were most often Muslims, not Christians. One example is ARV: C 129: 142v-143v (13 September 1481)—Juçeff Çabot, a royal vassal in Játiva originally from Valldigna, returns to the valley and, with accomplices, murders a Muslim of Tabernes. The registers ARV: B 217-221 contain official truces established between feuding Mudejars. See chap. 6.
111. ARV: B 195: 65r-v (30 April 1502).
112. ARV: B 1433: 332r-333v (10 December 1502).
113. ARV: B 194: 58r-59v, 61r-63r (1494).
114. ARV: B 194: 244r-245v (1495). Abun-Nasr, Maghrib , p. 158, discusses the opinions of the theologian Ahmad * al-Wanshirisi of Fez (d. 1508), who denounced as infidels those Andalusian Muslims who opined that life in Spain was preferable to the conditions in the Maghrib. See also Leila Sabbagh, "La religion des Morisques entre deux fatwas," in Les Morisques et leur temps , L. Cardaillac, ed. (Paris, 1983), pp. 43-56.
115. ARV: B 1433: 615v-616r (29 August 1504).
116. ACA: C 3546: 58r-v (17 May 1480).
117. ARV: B 1156: 654v-655r (17 November 1479).
118. ARV: C 303: 38r-v (10 August 1479).
119. AMV: g 3 33: 185r-v (10 June 1499).
120. J. Goñi Gaztambide, Historia de la bula de cruzada en España (Vitoria, 1958), pp. 371-403, 431-436. Regarding the promotion of the crusade against Granada, ARV: C 306: 76v-77r (16 July 1484); ARV: C 245: 32r-34r (30 August 1485), 43r-v (11 January 1486); ACA: C 3549: 22r-v (5 August 1484), 180r-v (8 July 1486); ACA: C 3609: 47r-50v (November 1485), 178r-180v (January 1488); and ACA: C 3610: 63r-64r (15 September 1490). Regarding the crusade against Africa, ACA C 3601: 110r-111r (18-20 May 1495), 173r-v (7 August 1496), 175v-176v (2 September 1496), 178r-v (6 September 1496), and 183r-v (30 October 14-96). Regarding the crusade against the Turks,
see ACA: C 3600: 199r-201r (10 June 1502), 205v-206v (30 June 1502), and 209v-210r (8 August 1502).
121. ARV: C 307: 39v-40r (13 May 1486).
122. ARV: C 307: 39r-v (13 May 1486).
123. For instance, AMV: g 3 30: 169v (17 May 1483).
124. Gual Camarena, "Mudéjares valencianos," p. 480.
125. Cited in Ricard Garcia Càrcel and Eduard Císcar Pallarés, Moriscos i agermanats (Valencia, 1974), pp. 122-123.
126. ACA: C 3605: 136r (13 April 1482). This preaching might not have been specifically related to the crusade.
127. ACA: C 3567: 152r (8 February 1496).
128. ARV: C 650: 3r-4r (7 April 1488); see also chap. 1.
129. ARV: MR 106: 245r (13 February 1496)—"publicar dos crides ... el altra ... que negu no gosas maltractar los moros de Barberia." ARV: MR 107: 245r (3 March 1497)—"E altra crida que nigu no fos gosat de injuriar ningun moro berberuz."
130. ARV: C 310: 119r (30 January 1497).
131. A number of the transactions between Christian corders of Valencia and Muslim espardenyers of the Vall de Uxó are documented, for instance, ARV: B 1220: III 35r (16 March 1486), where Ali Gerret confesses to owing to Francesch Nadal 53 sous for the "fil de canem" he purchased from him.
132. ARV: B 1431: 67v and 77v (3 June 1491)—the case of Açen Muça of Serra.
133. For instance, ARV: C 131: 157v-158v (19 November 1483)—a Genoese ship conducting business in Cazaza with Fernando's safeguard is robbed by pirates from Alicante.
134. ARV: C 139: 179v-181r (2 January 1496).
135. ARV: B 1157: 637v-639r (25 May 1484), and ARV: B 1158: 73v-74v (30 August 1485), treat the confiscation of arms intended for illicit sale in the Maghrib. See also the comments of Guiral, "Relations commerciales," pp. 118-121, 130. ACA: C 3566: 28r-v (8 January 1488)—a Sicilian ship captures a Turkish galley, and on board are found two Catalans and a cargo of contraband goods, mainly armaments. On the antecedents of such activity, see Robert I. Burns, "Renegades, Adventurers, and Sharp Businessmen: The Thirteenth Century Spaniard in the Cause of Islam," Catholic Historical Review 57 (1972): 341-366.
136. ARV: C 650: 253r-v (18 July 1502): Joan Andreu of Ibiza is reported to be piloting a corsair fleet gathering in Bougie and Algiers.
137. Hinojosa Montalvo, "Relaciones," p. 103; Garcia Càrcel and Císcar Pallarés, Moriscos , p. 30; Leopoldo Piles Ros, Apuntes para la historia económico-social de Valencia durante el siglo XV (Valencia, 1969), pp. 115-119; and Gual Camarena, "Mudéjares valencianos," pp. 472-485, esp. p. 485. For a perceptive discussion of the relationship between economic difficulties and anti-Jewish and anti-Converso violence, see MacKay, "Popular Movements and Pogroms."
138. García Cárcel, Germanías , pp. 39-90; idem, "Las Germanías y la crisis
de subsistencias de 1521," Boletín de la Sociedad Castellonense de Cultura 51 (1975): 281-315; and Duran, Germanies , pp. 122-128, 369-400.
139. García Cárcel, Germanías , pp. 96, 189; Duran, Germanies , pp. 180-205, 394-395, 415-416.
140. García Cárcel, Germanías , pp. 188-191; Garcia Càrcel and Císcar Pallarés, Moriscos , pp. 121-130.
141. See chap. 1.
142. AMV: g 3 33: 214r (29 February 1500).
143. ACA: C 3655: 34r-v (5 March 1500).
144. ACA: C 3655: 34r-v. ARV: MR 109: 276v (1500)—a public proclamation of the royal safeguard protecting all Muslims of the kingdom. ACA: C 3614: 53v-54r (26 March 1500)—Fernando assures the Infante Enrique that the rumors are false and that no action will be taken against the Mudejars.
145. ACA: C 3600: 176v-177r (30 September 1501).
146. ACA: C 3600: 191v-192r (20 February 1502). Salvador, "Emigración," pp. 61-63, transcribes this document, which is a reiteration of the order of 5 March 1500.
147. ARV: C 596: 325r-v (8 March 1501).
148. ARV: C 596: 328v-329r (21 March 1501).
149. ARV: B 1162: 193v (24 April 1501).
150. ARV: B 1162: 199v-200v (11 May 1501).
151. ARV: B 1162: 239r-v (25 May 1501).
152. Salvador, "Emigración," p. 56.
153. ARV: C 650: 277r (3 September 1501).
154. ARV: C 650: 248r (24 May 1502)—"nosaltres [the nobles] qui tenim clara noticia dels recels e temors que los dits moros tenen per la gran conversacio e practica que ab aquells tenim com vixcam entre aquells."
155. ARV: C 650: 240v (12 April 1502).
156. ARV: C 650: 240v-241r.
157. ARV: C 650: 241v.
158. ARV: C 650: 242r-v (12 April 1502).
159. ARV: C 650: 242v-243r.
160. ARV: C 650: 247v-248r (24 May 1502).
161. ARV: C 650: 251r-252v (6 July 1502).
162. ARV: B 1162: 316r (17 June 1502)—a Mudejar family flees Castellnou with the intention of emigrating; 326r-v (4 July)—three Muslims of Polop are captured while trying to board boats for Africa; and 349v (19 October 1502)—other Mudejars are captured and killed while attempting to escape. ARV: MR 110: 82r, 83v-84r (1502)—Mudejars are fined for attempting illegal flight.
163. AMV: g 3 33: 290v-291r (1 May 1502).
164. ARV: C 158: 83v-84v (6 September 1502); ARV: C 311: 300v-301r (20 October 1502); ARV: B 1162: 318v-319v (11 March 1502); and ARV: MR 110: 278r (1502).
165. ARV: C 311: 254v-255r (6 June 1502)—Almoradi; and AMV: g 3 34: 118r (13 April 1503)—Benidorm.
166. AMV: g 3 34: 171r-173r (30 August 1503).
167. Braudel, "Afrique du Nord," pp. 203-208.
168. AMV: g 3 34: 2v (27 May 1502).
169. AMV: g 3 34: 11r (16 July 1502).
170. ARV: C 650: 253r-v (18 July 1502).
171. Ricardo García Cárcel, "La revuelta morisca de Espadán," Al-Andalus (1976): 121-146.
172. Constitucions de Cathalunya (ACA: Camara V: XXVI/5/20): folio 30r: Cap. XV (1503): "Que los moros no sien expellits de Cathalunya." Ricardo del Arco, "Cortes aragonesas de los Reyes Católicos," Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas, y Museos 60 (1954): 92.
173. ARV: B 1162: 264v-265r (20 September 1501), 320r-v (22 June 1502), 428v-429r (1 April 1503), 455r (10 June 1503); and ARV: B 1433: 615v-616r (29 August 1504).
174. ARV: B 1162: 578r (18 July 1504).
175. Garcia Cárcel, Germanías , pp. 188-189, 219-220, document no. 1; idem, Inquisición , pp. 116-117.
176. The document containing Fernando's response is published in Doussinague, Política , pp. 515-517, apendice (appendix) no. 1: Fernando to the king of Naples, his intermediary in relations with Qa'it * Bay * , (5 September 1489).