1. Warren Watanabe, "First Annual Report—September 1942-September 1943," November 20, 1943, JERS.

2. Trek , December 1942, 8.

3. James, Exile Within , 8.

4. Ibid., 38-41.

5. Topaz files, October 11, 1942, WRA, RG 210.

6. Uchida, Desert Exile , 116-20. Quotations from pages 117-18 and 120.

7. Trek , December 1942, p. 9.

8. Claud H. Pratt, Ogden, Utah, "Topaz Relocation Center," April 1983, prepared for Jane Beckwith's high school class project, Delta, Utah; copy in possession of the author; Millard County Chronicle , October 1, 1942.

9. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 32.

10. Trek , December 1942, p. 9.

11. "Education in Topaz," Topaz files, January 1, 1944, WRA, RG 210,

12. Uchida, Desert Exile , 125-26.

13. "Education in Topaz," Topaz files, January 1, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

14. Ibid., 43-45.

15. Russell Bankston, "Annual Cabinet Meeting at Topaz," Historical Section Topaz, Project Report H433, 67/14 H. 2.07, as cited in James, Exile Within , 51.

16. "Education in Topaz," Topaz files, January 1, 1944, WRA, RG 210,

17. Sekerak, "A Teacher at Topaz," 38-43.

18. Paul Bell, "Views From an Inside Outsider," August 16, 1980, delivered to a reunion of the Class of 1945 in San Francisco, August 16, 1980. Copy given to the author by Paul Bell; telephone conversation with Paul Bell, University Park, Pa., September 25, 1990.

19. Note from Fumi Hayashi, Berkeley, undated, October 1989.

20. Kitano, Japanese Americans: Evolution of a Subculture , 38.

21. James, Exile Within , 46-61.

22. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 51.

23. Ibid., 63-65.

24. Conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, September 10, 1990.

25. Topaz files, April 7, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

26. Kitano, Japanese Americans: Evolution of a Subculture , 36-37; Takaki, Strangers , 396.

27. Note from Fumi Hayashi, Berkeley, undated, October 1989; conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, October 10, 1990.

28. James, Exile Within , 74.

29. Ibid., citing examples from R. A. Bankston, "First High School Commencement," Topaz Reports Division, Project Report H 441, RG 210.

30. Statements written by Hisako Hibi, San Francisco, given to the author November 2, 1987; in possession of the author. Deborah Gesensway and Mindy Roseman have compiled a moving collection of camp art, much of it from Topaz, in Beyond Words .

31. Topaz files, May 1, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

32. Interview with Abu Keikoan Guilday, Sacramento, May 14, 1988, AWC.

33. Interview with Maya Nagata Aikawa, Oakland, November 4, 1987, AWC.

34. Interview with Michiko Okamoto, New York, October 6, 1987, AWC.

35. Interview with Shigeki J. Sugiyama, Washington, D.C., June 9, 1988, AWC.

36. Ibid.

37. Interview with Robert Utsumi, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC.

38. Interview with Lee Suyemoto, Newton, Mass., June 21, 1988, AWC. See also Kitano, "Japanese-American Crime and Delinquency," 161-70.

39. Kitano, Japanese Americans: Evolution of a Subculture , 36.

40. Daniels, Asian America , 234-35.

41. Ibid.

42. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 83.

43. Ibid., 86-87; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 26-27.

44. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 86-87.

45. Ibid., 90; Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1942, JERS; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 26.

46. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 120-21.

47. Daniels, Asian America , 235.

48. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1942, JERS.

49. Ibid.

50. Russell A. Bankston, "The Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

51. Telephone conversation with Evelyn Hodges Lewis, Wellsville, Utah, August 30, 1990.

52. Minutes of the Community Council, April 15, 1943, JERS.

53. Ibid.; Topaz Times , April 13, 1943.

54. Minutes of the Community Council, April 15, 1943, JERS.

55. Bankston, "Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210; Daniels, Asian America , 228-31; Topaz Times , April 12, 1943.

56. Topaz Times , April 12, 1943.

57. Minutes of the Community Council, April 16, 1943, JERS.

58. Topaz Times , April 12, 1943.

59. Ibid., April 16, 17, and 20, 1943.

60. Minutes of the Community Council, April 20, 1943, JERS.

61. Ibid.

62. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 312.

63. Topaz Times , April 13 and 20, 1943.

64. Ken Verdoia, transcript of Topaz , a KUED-TV production (Salt Lake City, 1987). Verdoia states that this information came from the National Archives but gives no specific reference for it. He also states that the sentry testified at the court martial that he intended the shot that killed Wakasa as a warning shot. See pp. 33-34.

65. Topaz Times , April 22, 1943.

66. Topaz Times , April 20, 1943.

67. Topaz Times , April 16, 1943.

68. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 180.

69. Bankston, ''Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210; Uchida, Desert Exile , 140.

70. Bankston, "Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210. The subject of the dog was widely disputed; Roscoe Bell thought Wakasa was walking a dog, but Bell's wife Gladys said he "liked to walk the dogs of the city" and was walking about five when he was killed. Roscoe Bell, "Relocation Center Life,'' and Gladys K. Bell, "Memories of Topaz, Japanese War Relocation Center, 1942 to 1945," ML.

71. Interview with Karl Akiya, New York, June 16 and 18, 1988; Akiya, testimony to the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, November 23, 1981, New York City, copy in the possession of the author.

72. Conversation with Evelyn Hodges Lewis, Wellsville, Utah, August 30, 1990.

73. Interview with George Gentoku Shimamoto, Fort Lee, N.J., October 5, 1987, AWC.

74. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 6.

75. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 312.

76. Uchida, Desert Exile , 139-40.

77. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 180.

78. Conversation with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., September 25, 1990. Roscoe Bell, "Relocation Center Life," and Gladys Bell, "Memories of Topaz," ML.

79. Michi Kobi (Michiko Okamoto), interviewed in Verdoia, Topaz transcript, 32.

80. Hoffman to Myer, July 25, 1944, as cited in Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 281. Drinnon incorrectly called Hoffman Louis instead of Luther.

81. Conversation with Jane Beckwith, Delta, July 21, 1987.

82. See Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 312 n.

83. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 281; Drinnon cited Jackman's article, "Collective Protest in Relocation Centers," American Journal of Sociology 63 (November 1957): 264-72.

84. Edward Ennis, interview in Verdoia, Topaz transcript, 35.

85. Daniels, Asian America , 261.

86. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 53-56.

87. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 138.

88. Daniels, Asian America , 262-64; Russell Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

89. Personal Justice Denied , 195; see also War Relocation Authority, WRA , table 3, p. 199.

90. Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

91. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, JERS; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 19-20; War Relocation Authority, WRA , table 3, p. 199; Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

92. Oscar F. Hoffman and Charles Ernst to Dillon Myer, October 12, 1943, CA Reports.

93. Interview with K. Morgan Yamanaka, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, and Mill Valley, Calif., March 9, 1990, AWC.

94. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 20-21; Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

95. Interview with William Kochiyama, New York, October 6, 1987, AWC.

96. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 92.

97. Telephone conversation with Evelyn Hodges Lewis, Wellsville, Utah, August 30, 1990.

98. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, JERS.

99. Fumi Hayashi commented upon reading this section, "I think that it was a miracle that there wasn't more drinking and shouting in Topaz where the folks had so little to do and so little to console them." Her remarks say much about the persistence of the social mores of prewar Japanese America.

100. Hoffman and Charles F. Ernst to Myer, October 12, 1943, CA Reports.

101. Conversation with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., September 25, 1990.

102. Interview with Abu Keikoan Guilday, Sacramento, May 14, 1988, AWC.

103. Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

104. Kessler, "Fettered Freedoms."

105. Fumi Hayashi's comments on the rough draft of my interview with her, October 1989.

106. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

107. Suzuki, Ministry , 170-78, 191; Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

108. See the cover of Trek , December 1942; Okubo, Citizen 13660, 156.

109. Interview with Tad Fujita, Berkeley, October 28, 1987, AWC; and Suzuki, Ministry , 189-90.

110. Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

111. Suzuki, Ministry , 179-80; Roscoe Bell, "Relocation Center Life," ML; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 33.

112. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 22-23.

113. Russell Bankston, "Organization and Development of the Topaz Consumer Cooperative Enterprise," JERS; interview with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, November 4, 1987, AWC.

114. Interview with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, November 4, 1987; "Background to Topaz Films," statement prepared by Dave Tatsuno, in the possession of the author.

115. Statement by Chiyoko Yano and Isao James Yano, Berkeley, August 22, 1988, in possession of author; interview with Kazu Iijima, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC.

116. Topaz Times , April 1, 1943.

117. Conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, January 25, 1993.

118. Reports from Topaz files, 1942-43, WRA, RG 210.

119. Conversation with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, March 7, 1989; interview with Kazu Iijima, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC.

120. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 103-4.

121. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, RG 210.

122. Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

123. Notes of interview with Faith Terasawa, San Francisco, November 6, 1987, in the possession of the author; interview with Kazu Iijima, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC.

124. Topaz files, November 16, 1942, WRA, RG 210. The complaints were listed in a grievance letter sent by the medical staff to the administration, dated November 16, 1942; the minutes of the Hospital Committee, January 20, 1943, also explain the situation. Both documents were given me by Kenji Fujii.

125. Topaz files, March 31, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

126. Interview with "Harry Ando," cited in Spickard, Mixed Blood , 52.

127. Several interviewees mention the sexual problem, and so does George Sugihara in "An Analysis of Delinquent Problems, Their Possible Causes and Cures," April 7, 1943, JERS; Bill Kochiyama made some reference to illegal drinking, as did Paul Bell. A report in the Topaz files, December 4, 1943, WRA, RG 210, refers to gambling.

128. Russell Bankston, "Labor Trouble in Topaz," October 2, 1943, JERS; Topaz files, November 5, 1943, WRA, RG 210; conversation with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., September 25, 1990.

129. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, WRA, RG 210.