1. The classic works on this subject are volume 4 of Henri de Lubac's Exégèse médièvale: Les quatre sens de l'écriture , 4 vols. (Paris: Aubier, 1959-1964), and Beryl Smalley's The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages , 2d ed. (1952; rpt. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1964). See also Smalley,

"The Bible in the Medieval Schools," in The Cambridge History of the Bible: The West from the Fathers to the Reformation , ed. G. W. Lampe, (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1969), 197-219; G. R. Evans, The Language and Logic of the Bible: The Road to Reformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Jerry H. Bentley, Humanists and Holy Writ: New Testament Scholarship in the Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); Erika Rummel, Erasmus' Annotationes on the New Testament: From Philologist to Theologian , Erasmus Studies 8 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986). For the fairly large bibliography on Erasmus's biblical scholarship, see Jean-Claude Margolin, "The Epistle to the Romans (Chapter 11) According to the Versions and/or Commentaries of Valla, Colet, Lefevre, and Erasmus," in The Bible in the Sixteenth Century , ed. David Steinmetz, Duke Monographs in Medieval and Renaissance Studies 11, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1990), 241-42.

2. By far the best survey of Renaissance biblical scholarship is François Laplanche's L'écriture, le sacré et l'histoire: Érudits et politiques protestants devant la Bible en France au XVIIe siècle (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1986), which focuses on Cappel and French Protestant exegesis but includes an intelligent discussion of the whole development of scholarly exegesis from Valla through late seventeenth-century Protestant scholarship in terms of its political, theological, and philological ramifications. See also the fourth volume of Stanislaus von Dunin-Borkowski's Spinoza , 4 vols. (Munster: Aschendorffschen Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1936), a bibliographic survey of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century historical and philological scholarship, both secular and sacred, with a fairly strong Roman Catholic bias; Ludwig Diestel's Geschichte des Alten Testamentes in der christlichen Kirche (Jena, 1869), which focuses on Protestant contributions to the development of modern biblical scholarship; Don Cameron Allen's The Legend of Noah: Renaissance Rationalism in Art, Science, and Letters , Illinois Studies in Language and Literature 33.3-4 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949), which treats the secularization of exegesis—the increasing skepticism about the literal truth of the Bible; S. L. Greenslade, ed., The West from the Reformation to the Present Day , vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the Bible (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1963), fairly superficial but good for an overview; and Richard Simon's Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs du Noveau Testament (Rotterdam, 1693), an exhaustive survey but vitiated by the pervasive confessional polemic and irritating omission of dates/chronology.

3. Critici sacri, sive annotata doctissimorum virorum in Vetus ac Novum Testamentum , ed. John Pearson, A. Scattergood, F. Gouldman, and R. Pearson, 9 vols., 2d ed. (Amsterdam, 1698). Diestel comments, "So entstand das Werk Critici sacri ... das des Guten wenig auslässt, doc auch vom Mittelmässigen vie! bietet, im Ganzen einer wissenschaftlichen Richtung im Sinne von Drusius huldigend. Sie geben ein ziemlich getreues Bild der Exegese von

1550-1660" ( Geschichte , 439). The Appendix gives its (unpaginated) table of contents.

4. Hugh Trevor-Roper, Catholics, Anglicans, and Puritans: Seventeenth-Century Essays (London: Secker and Warburg, 1987), 192.

5. Except, of course, in relation to Milton and a few other canonical authors. See, for example, Arnold Williams, The Common Expositor: An Account of the Commentaries on Genesis, 1527-1633 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948); J. Martin Evans, Paradise Lost and the Genesis Tradition (Oxford: Clarendon, 1968); Michael Lieb, Poetics of the Holy: A Reading of Paradise Lost (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981); Chana Bloch, Spelling the Word: George Herbert and the Bible (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); James G. Turner, One Flesh: Paradisal Marriage and Sexual Relations in the Age of Milton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987); Mary Ann Radzinowicz, Milton's Epics and the Book of Psalms (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); and Regina Schwartz, Remembering and Repeating: Biblical Creation in Paradise Lost (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

6. Brian Stock, Listening for the Text: On the Uses of the Past (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990).

7. Turner's discussion of patristic and Renaissance Genesis commentaries in One Flesh gives an immensely learned overview of these disparate exegetic traditions.

8. The sources for this section include the Dictionary of National Biography ; B. Rekers, Benito Arias Montano (1527-1598) (London: Warburg Institute, 1972); H. J. de Jonge, "The Study of the New Testament," trans. J. C. Grayson, in Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century: An Exchange of Learning , ed. Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. Posthumus Meyjes (Leiden: Brill, 1975), 65-110; Paul Sellin, Daniel Heinsius and Stuart England , Publications of the Sir Thomas Browne Institute 3 (Leiden: At the University Press, 1968); G. Lloyd Jones, The Discovery of Hebrew in Tudor England: A Third Language (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983); J. Brugman, "Arabic Scholarship," in Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century , ed. Lunsingh Scheurleer and Posthumus Meyjes, 203-15; W. S. M. Knight, The Life and Works of Hugo Grotius , Grotius Society Publications 4 (1925; rpt. London: Wildy, 1965); Peter T. van Rooden, Theology, Biblical Scholarship, and Rabbinical Studies in the Seventeenth Century: Constantijn L'Empereur (1591-1648), Professor of Hebrew and Theology at Leiden , trans. J. C. Grayson, Studies in the History of Leiden University 6 (Leiden: Brill, 1989); Pattison, Isaac Casaubon ; Laplanche, L'écriture ; and the biography of Johannes Drusius given in the prefatory material to volume 6 of the Critici sacri (xxxiii-xli).

9. De Jonge, "Study," 83, 87, 100.

10. Sellin, Heinsius , 79.

11. Ibid., 103-5.

12. Andrewes was master of Pembroke from 1589-1605, but from 1589 on he was also the rector of St. Giles, Cripplegate, and prebend at St. Paul's and Southwell; thus, after 1589 he may not have spent much time at the university.

13. Lloyd Jones, Hebrew in Tudor England , 146-47.

14. Florence Higham, Lancelot Andrewes (London: SCM Press, 1952), 40.

15. Laplanche, L'écriture , 27; Diestel, Geschichte , 420.

16. Knight, Grotius , 98-103.

17. Anthony Grafton, Joseph Scaliger: A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship , vol. 1, Textual Criticism and Exegesis (Oxford: Clarendon, 1983), 1.

18. Smalley, Study of the Bible .

19. Biblia Sacra cum glossa ordinaria ... et postilla Nicholai Lirani ... necnon additionibus Pauli Burgensis ... & Matthiae Thoringi replicis , 6 vols. (Antwerp, 1617), 5:421. The King James Bible translates the passage as "Verily I say unto you, Wheresoever this gospel shall be preached in the whole world, there shall also be this, that this woman hath done, be told for a memorial of her."

20. Collatio Novi Testamenti was Valla's own title; Erasmus published it in 1505, however, as Adnotationes in Novum Testamentum .

21. Critici sacri 6:862; further references to the Critici sacri will appear in the text. The pagination of the volumes is a little complicated since each volume often has several sections each paginated separately, and the volumes have no table of contents to clarify matters. (There are also two volume 1s, which doesn't help matters, especially since the index seems keyed to the 1660 edition, which was bound differently.) For example, there are three sections in volume 6, each with its own pagination: one covers Matthew, the second Mark and Luke, and the third John. As long as the reader knows the biblical verse under discussion, however, it is not difficult to find the relevant page.

22. Jacques Chomarat, "Les Annotations de Valla, celles d'Erasme et la grammaire," in Histoire de l'exégèse au XVIe siècle , ed. Olivier Fatio and Pierre Fraenkel, (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1978), 204, 211-12.

23. Lorenzo Valla, Elegantiarum libri sex , in Opera omnia , intro. Eugenio Garin, 2 vols. (Turin: Bottega d'Erasmo, 1962), 1:143, 215.

24. Donald Kelley, Foundations of Modern Historical Scholarship: Language, Law, and History in the French Renaissance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 32-33.

25. In the dedicatory epistle to Sir Philip Sidney prefacing his edition of the New Testament, Stephanus (Henri Estienne) observes concerning Castellio's translation: "Sed quantum illorum hominum qui nec everrit pro evertit , nec sporta pro porta reponi sinebant plenam ignorantia superstitiosa timiditatem deploraret, tantum profecto eam quae in hoc nostrum seculum erupit non irreligiosam tantum sed religionis profanatricem audaciam detestaretur, quae in

interpretando hoc sacrosancto opere ... non solum pro idolis Deastros , & pro idololatris Deastricolas , aliaque id genus multa, sed Genios etiam pro Angelis , pro Baptismo lotionem (sicut lavare pro baptizare ) & fiduciam pro fide passim dixit ... tam multa denique novavit ut Testamentum hoc sic interpretatum alio etiam sensu novum appellari possit" (6: xvii).

26. De Jonge, "Study," 67.

27. Cf. Bentley, Humanists and Holy Writ , 180; Chomarat, " Les Annotations ," 222-23.

28. Chomarat, " Les Annotations ," 220-21.

29. Rummel, Erasmus' Annotationes , 74.

30. For this whole paragraph, I am indebted to Kathy Eden's "Hermeneutics and the Ancient Rhetorical Tradition," Rhetorica 5 (1987): 59-86; "The Rhetorical Tradition and Augustinian Hermeneutics in De doctrina Christiana," Rhetorica 8 (1990): 45-63; "Equity and the Origins of Renaissance Historicism: The Case for Erasmus,'' Yale Journal of Law and the Humanities 5 (1993): 137-45; "Strategies of Accommodation in Erasmus' Later Works,'' paper given at the conference of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric, September 1991.

31. Bentley, Humanists and Holy Writ , 212.

32. Theodore Beza, Jesu Christi Domini Nostri Novum Testamentum, sive Novum Foedus, cujus Graeco contextui respondent interpretationes duae: una, vetus; altera, Theodori Bezae ... Accessit etiam Joachimi Camerarii in Novum Foedus Commentarius (Cambridge, 1642), 89; Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici , ed. Augustinus Theiner, 37 vols. (Paris, 1864-1883), 1:144.

33. One finds the same ahistorical approach in the loci communes of Melanchthon, Bucer, and other Protestant scholastics but based on Aristotelian/rhetorical method rather than typological ecclesiology; see, for example, Bucer's comment that "in the observations I have aimed at providing a sylvulam for the unlearned, so that, from Paul's limited dogmas and precepts (limited on account of the complex of things, persons and times and other peristaseon [circumstances], and which are called hypotheses ) we may ascend more easily and surely anagoge to theses , that is, the universal [infiniti] dogmas and precepts, which are not bound to persons, places, and times" (quoted in T. H. L. Parker, Calvin's New Testament Commentaries [Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1971], 46; I have put Greek in Roman letters). As in Erasmus, the exegete divests historical narratives of local specificity in order to separate out general truths.

34. Parker, Calvin's Commentaries , 91.

35. Richard Muller, "The Hermeneutic of Promise and Fulfillment in Calvin's Exegesis of the Old Testament Prophecies of the Kingdom," in The Bible in the Sixteenth Century , ed. David Steinmetz, Duke Monographs in Medieval and Renaissance Studies 11 (Durham: Duke University Press), 73, 81.

36. Laplanche, L'écriture , 32.

37. Kelley, Foundations . Cf. Dunin-Borkowski: "Man kann in einem gewissen Sinn sogar sagen, dass die Kunst, die wir mittlere und höhere Kritik nennen, in einem iherer vorzüglichsten Ansätze, hier bei den juristischen 'Philologen' geboren wurde; was man bisher kaum jemals erkannt hat. Und eben deshalb war es noch um die Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts Pflicht jedes Kritikers, dieses Schifttum genau zu kennen" ( Spinoza 4:207).

38. Anthony Grafton, Defenders of the Text: The Traditions of Scholarship in an Age of Science, 1450-1800 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 142-44.

39. De Jonge, "Study," 86.

40. Casaubon, De rebus sacris et ecclesiasticis exercitationes XVI ad Cardinalis Baronii (London, 1614), 603-4.

41. Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, Erasmus on Language and Method in Theology (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), 13-31.

42. Casaubon, Exercitationes , 476 (misprinted as 464).

43. Ibid., 610-17.

44. Daniel Heinsius, D. Heinsii sacrarum exercitationum ad Novum Testamentum libri XX , 2d ed. (Cambridge, 1640), 85.

45. Joachim Camerarius, Commentarius in Novum Foedus (1572; Cambridge, 1642), 17 (bound with Beza's Novum Testamentum ).

46. The latter possibility was particularly controversial, since it weakens the authority of the biblical witness and seems incompatible with belief in literal inspiration. Such criticism implicitly desacralizes the text, forcing one to treat it like other texts , as subject to the same authorial vicissitudes (Laplanche, L'écriture , 368-69). Hence, in order to place Spinoza's biblical scholarship in its disciplinary and historical context, Dunin-Borkowski gives a fairly lengthy monograph on the development of Classical philology and historiography during the Renaissance; Spinoza's radicalism, Dunin-Borkowski argues, consists mainly of applying to the Bible the methods that had been used in secular philology for close to two centuries ( Spinoza 4:160, 194-95).

47. Drusius was one of the earliest Protestant scholars to argue that some books of the Old Testament had disappeared—a position he connected to the further claim that the earliest canon of the Old Testament contained only the Pentateuch, the inclusion of the Prophets as part of the liturgy having begun only after Antiochus Epiphanes prohibited the reading of the Law (1.2.384-86).

48. Modern scholarship has thought this point worth making again; cf. Stock, Listening for the Text , 7-8.

49. "Archeology" ( ) is, significantly, the ancient term for what we would call antiquarian studies; see Arnaldo Momigliano, The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 60.

50. Frank Kermode, The Genesis of Secrecy: On the Interpretation of Narrative (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), 55-60.

51. Biblia Sacra 5:636.

52. Beza, Novum Testamentum , 143.

53. Baronius, Annales 1:128.

54. Casaubon, Exercitationes , 593.

55. Grotius, Critici sacri 6:176; Henry Hammond, A Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the Books of the New Testament , 5th ed. (London, 1681), 175.

56. John Lightfoot, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica, Matthew-I Corinthians , 4 vols. (1859; rpt. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1979), 2:354.

57. For other Renaissance studies of ancient Jewish polity, see Laplanche, L'écriture , 30; Rooden, Theology , 219; and William McCuaig, Carlo Sigonio: The Changing World of the Late Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), which unfortunately deals only with Sigonius's secular scholarship. Volume 5 of the Critici sacri reprints Cornelius Bertramus's De republica & politia Judaica (1574) and Petrus Cunaeus's De republica Hebraeorum libri III (1617).

58. Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature , trans. Willard Trask (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953),44.

59. Ibid., 22-23.

60. Although at least some of this material was known to medieval exegetes, they rarely applied it to the interpretation of the New Testament; furthermore, the decline of humanistic studies after the mid-fourteenth century meant that Renaissance Hebrew scholarship did not build on a continuous tradition but at the time seemed "unprecedented" (Smalley, "The Bible in the Medieval Schools," 219). For Hebrew and Oriental philology in the Renaissance, see Allen, Noah ; Brugman, "Arabic Scholarship"; Basil Hall, ''Biblical Scholarship: Editions and Commentaries," in The Cambridge History of the Bible: The West from the Reformation to the Present Day , ed. S. L. Greenslade, (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1963), 38-93; De Jonge, ''Study"; Aaron L. Katchen, Christian Hebraists and Dutch Rabbis: Seventeenth Century Apologetics and the Study of Maimonides' Mishneh Torah , Harvard Judaic Texts and Studies 3 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Laplanche, L'écriture ; Lloyd Jones, Hebrew in Tudor England ; Rooden, Theology ; Jerome Friedman, The Most Ancient Testimony: Sixteenth-Century Christian-Hebraica in the Age of Renaissance Nostalgia (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1983).

61. Conrad Pellican had published an elementary Hebrew grammar three years earlier, but this rather mediocre work was swiftly superseded by Reuchlin's text; see Friedman, The Most Ancient Testimony , 24, 31.

62. This, however, was largely filched from Raymundus Martini's Pugio Fidei , published 250 years earlier in 1278—a debt Galatinus did not acknowledge.

63. Hall, "Biblical Scholarship," 40.

64. See Katchen, Christian Hebraists .

65. Rekers, Montano , 53.

66. Hammond, A Paraphrase , 275.

67. For example, Camerarius, Novum Foedus , 16.

68. Joseph Justus Scaliger, Opus de emendatione temporum (Leiden, 1598), 534-36.

69. Beza, Novum Testamentum , 87.

70. Hammond, A Paraphrase , 131.

71. Baronius, Annales , 116-18; Cornelius à Lapide, The Great Commentary , ed. and trans. Thomas Mossman, 6 vols. (London, 1876-1887), 3:161-64.

72. Casaubon, Exercitationes , 474-78, 481; see also Laplanche, L'écriture , 286-88. "That day," of course, refers to the Hebrew day, which goes from sunset to sunset.

73. As did several important Roman Catholic exegetes—for example, Maldonatus and Cornelius Jansenius. Casaubon lists the advocates on either side in Exercitationes , 468.

74. Cloppenburg's argument and Cappel's replies are summarized in the other great Restoration compendium of biblical scholarship: Matthew Poole's Synopsis criticorum aliorumque S. Scripturae interpretum , 5 vols. (London, 1669), 4:607-10; see also Laplanche, L'écriture , 286-87.

75. Hence, Erasmus remarks, "Nam fieri potest ut de die Paschae statuendo labatur numero Ecclesia, cum is error ad pietatis aut fidei negotium proprie non pertineat" (7:1026).

76. Casaubon, Exercitationes , 482; see also the comments of the early sixteenth-century Hebraicist Sebastian Munster, in Critici sacri (6:859). Grafton discusses these calendrical matters in Defenders , 127.

77. Scaliger, De emendatione , 532.

78. Diestel, Geschichte , 280.

79. John Selden, De jure naturali & gentium juxta disciplinam Ebraeorum (London, 1640), 487-88.

80. Ibid., 490-91, 498.

81. Ibid., 490.

82. Mieke Bal, Death and Dissymmetry: The Politics of Coherence in the Book of Judges (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

83. Biblia sacra cum glossa interlineari, ordinaria, et Nicolai Lyrani postilla, eiusdemque moralitatibus, Burgensis additionibus, & Thoringi replicis , 7 vols. (Venice, 1588), 5:7-10.

84. See Josephus, Against Apion , in Jospehus , trans. H. St. J. Thackeray, 8 vols., Loeb Classical Library (London: William Heinemann, 1926). 1:30-36.

85. Daniel P. Walker, The Ancient Theology: Studies in Christian Platonism from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), 18-19; Grafton, Defenders , 145-77.

86. Grafton, Scaliger , 116.

87. Rooden, Theology , 59n.

88. Quoted in De Jonge, "Study," 84.

89. Diestel considers this "Fülle von Anmerkungen und Parallelen aus den Klassikern" the distinctive feature of Grotian exegesis ( Geschichte , 432).

90. Mark Pattison, Essays by the Late Mark Pattison , ed. Henry Nettleship, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1889), 1:163; cf. Laplanche, L'écriture , 94-95.

91. Biblia Sacra (1617) 5:453; Erasmus, Critici sacri 6:932.

92. Justus Lipsius, De cruce libri tres (Antwerp, 1594).

93. Casaubon, Exercitationes , 601.

94. See chapter 3 for the Calvinist reading of this episode.

95. Hammond, A Paraphrase , 103.

96. Pierre Pithou, Mosaicarum et Romanarum legum collatio (1572), reprinted in Critici sacri 1.2.193-248.

97. Grotius, Critici sacri 6:891-92, 896-97; Scaliger, De emendatione , 534; Baronius, Annales , 120-21; Casaubon, Exercitationes , 488-89, 525, 608-9, 672; Hammond, A Paraphrase , 129-30.

98. Scaliger, De emendatione , 530.

99. Walker, Ancient Theology , 65.

100. Alan Richardson, "The Rise of Modern Biblical Scholarship and Recent Discussion of the Authority of the Bible," in The Cambridge History of the Bible: The West from the Reformation to the Present Day , ed. S. L. Greenslade (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1963), 300.

101. Zachary Sayre Schiffman observes a similar shift from "the lives of kings, captains, and saints" to "the institutional structure of ancient Gaul, Roman Gaul, and the kingdom of the Franks" in late sixteenth-century French historiography in his On the Threshold of Modernity: Relativism in the French Renaissance , Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 33-34, 38.

102. See the notes to Matthew 27:46-47 in the Critici sacri by Munsterus, Erasmus, Clarius, Zegerus, Drusius, and Grotius.

103. À Lapide, The Great Commentary (1876-1887) 3:151-2.

104. Diestel's comments on Grotius register his nineteenth-century perplexity at this combination: "so eigenthümlich verschlingt sich hier der strenge Supernaturalismus mit naturalistischen Ahnungen!" ( Geschichte , 433).

105. The fusion of historical/antiquarian research and traditional hermeneutic pieties comes through clearly in the summary of the contents prefacing the original edition of the Critici sacri (reprinted at the beginning of volume 8 in the 1698 edition): "Whatever seems worth of mention in the sacred volumes—things, persons, actions, places, times, regions, cities, temples, tools, vessels, weights, measures, coins, attire, gesture, duties, rituals, laws, customs—all here are learnedly and clearly described. Not only are the mysteries of types, enigmas of prophecies and parables, and all the more difficult places of the sacred text here elucidated, but also the etymologies of the words them-

selves, their meanings, even the dots and dashes are minutely examined. Here is shown whatever the Rabbis of the Synagogue or the Doctors of the Church subtly observe concerning the sacred writings. Here the holy oracles of God are compared with the monuments of other peoples; the laws of the Hebrews with the ordinances of the gentiles; the odes of David, the proverbs of Solomon, and inspired maxims of other writers with the parallel passages from the ethnic poets, rhetoricians, and philosophers. Here finally one can see the wonderful harmony and accord of the sacred books, where one text asks help from another and calls upon it as a friend—the best kind of interpretation."

106. For a (rather predictable) analysis of Renaissance exegesis in terms of the secularization of the West, see Klaus Scholder, The Birth of Modern Critical Theology: Origins and Problems of Biblical Criticism in the Seventeenth Century , trans. John Bowden (London, SCM Press, 1990).

107. Lorenzo Valla, The Treatise of Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine , trans. Christopher Coleman (New York: Russell and Russell, 1922), 105-7, 115-17.

108. See Anthony Kemp, The Estrangement of the Past: A Study in the Origins of Modern Historical Consciousness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 62-63, 79.

109. Aristotle, History of Animals , trans. d'A. W. Thompson, in The Complete Works of Aristotle , ed. Jonathan Barnes, 2 vols., Bollingen Series 71 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 1.1.487b-488a, 5.7-8.54lb-542a, 6.8.564a (1:776-77, 855-56, 887). ("Treads," for those who have forgotten their Chaucer, means "copulates with.")

110. Pseudo-Aristotle, On Marvellous Things Heard , trans. L. D. Dowdall, in The Complete Works of Aristotle 2:1280.

111. Francis Bacon, The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human , in Francis Bacon: A Selection of His Works , ed. Sidney Warhaft (New York: Odyssey Press, 1965), 204; Richard Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity , intro. Christopher Morris, 2 vols. (London: Dent, 1907), 1.8.5.

112. On the Wunderkammer , see Steven Mullaney, "Strange Things, Gross Terms, Curious Customs: The Rehearsal of Cultures in the Late Renaissance," in Representing the English Renaissance , ed. Stephen Greenblatt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 65-92; Schiffman, On the Threshold , 3-4, 10-11.

113. Erasmus, De duplici copia verborum ac rerum commentarii duo , ed. Craig Thompson, trans. Betty Knott, in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974-), 24:637.

114. Once again, Scaliger is a seminal figure here. Discussion of the Hasids begins with the opening section of book 6 of De emendatione , which argues, contra Eusebius, that the monastic "Therapeutae" mentioned by Philo were not Christians but rather Essenes; furthermore, the name does not mean "healers" but "holy ones." He then goes on to note in passing the similarity

between Philo's Essenes and "Asidaioi" mentioned in 1 and 2 Maccabees (502-3). Drusius continued this line of inquiry in a brief passage in Quaestionum Ebraicarum libri tres (1599), where he argues that the Hasids mentioned in Maccabees were forerunners of Pharisees; hence, there were two main Jewish sects in Israel during the Hellenistic period—Hasids and Saducees. The Jesuit Nicholas Serarius rejected this interpretation, instead claiming that the Hasids were Essenes, and hence three groups existed within intertestamental Judaism. Drusius's De Hasidaeis (1603) then responded to Serarius, who replied in the Trihaeresium , defending his original opinion. In 1605 Drusius wrote an extended essay on the religious beliefs and politics of intertestamental Judaism, the De sectis Judaicis , dedicated to James I (to which was appended Scaliger's critique of Serarius, the Elenchus Trihaeresii ). The contributions of Scaliger and Drusius were republished together by Amama in 1619 as De sectis Judaicis commentarii trihaeresio ... accessit denuo Iosephi Scaligeri I.C.F. Elenchus Trihaeresii (Arnheim, 1619). See also Abraham Scultetus, Exercitationes Evangelicae 1.20-33, in Critici sacri 6:367-79; Bonaventura Bertramus, De republica Ebraeorum , in Critici sacri 5:367; and Petrus Cunaeus, De republica Hebraeorum libri III , in Critici sacri 5:420. This debate is also discussed by Grafton in Defenders , 137f.

115. Katchen, Christian Hebraists , 68; cf. Grafton, Defenders , 79.

116. For the relation between Renaissance legal historiography and the managment of diversity in the Renaissance, see also Schiffman, On the Threshold , 1-39.

117. Donald Kelley, "Louis le Caron Philosophe ," in Philosophy and Humanism: Renaissance Essays in Honor of Paul Oskar Kristeller , ed. Edward Mahoney (Leiden: Brill, 1976), 30.

118. John Barton, "The Faculty of Law," in The Collegiate University , ed. James McConica, vol. 3 of The History of the University of Oxford , gen. ed. T. H. Aston (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984-), 279.

119. See Thomas Greene, Light in Troy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982).

120. James A. Boon, "Comparative De-enlightenment: Paradox and Limits in the History of Ethnology," Daedalus 109 (1980): 79; Schiffman, On the Threshold , 7.

121. Mullaney, "Strange Things," 65-66.

122. The contrast between tribal peoples and ancestors should, however, not be drawn too rigidly, since the Renaissance tended to regard Amerindians and other "primitive" societies as fundamentally similar to earlier phases of their own cultures, i.e., as resembling ancestors. Chapter 2 deals in greater depth with the Renaissance tendency to identify archaic and exotic cultures.

123. Grafton, Defenders , 172.

124. Erasmus, Ciceronianus; or, A Dialogue on the Best Style of Speaking (1517), trans. Izora Scott (1908; rpt. New York: AMS, 1972), 61-62, 121-22.