1. These observations are drawn from Norton E. Long, "The Local Community as an Ecology of Games," American Journal of Sociology 64, no. 3 (November 1958): 251-261.

2. The concept of regional elites serving as brokers between the center

and the periphery was elaborated by Sidney Tarrow in reference to Italy and France in Between Center and Periphery: Grassroots Politicians in Italy and France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).

3. The view of regional and municipal leaders as brokers is also consistent with Jerry Hough's portrayal of the regional party secretary as prefect of the Soviet administrative/political system in The Soviet Prefects: The Local Party Organs in Industrial Decision-Making (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969).

4. The primary governmental institution at a given level within the Soviet Union's state hierarchy, consisting of elected deputies who are also leading administrators, managers, workers, and other notables. For a more complete description of the structure and function of Soviet local governance, see Appendix A.

5. M. Bliznakov, "Urban Planning in the USSR: Integrative Theories," in M. F. Hamm, ed., The City in Russian History (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1976), 243-256; S. Frederick Starr, "Visionary Town Planning during the Cultural Revolution," in Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), 207-240.

6. Bliznakov, "Urban Planning," 245; M. F. Parkins, City Planning in Soviet Russia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 11-12.

7. Bliznakov, "Urban Planning"; A. Kopp, Town and Revolution (New York: Braziller, 1970); A. Kopp, Changer la vie, changer la ville (Paris: U.G.E., 1975); Parkins, City Planning, 20-29; S. Frederick Starr, "The Revival and Schism of Urban Planning in Twentieth Century Russia," in Hamm, City in Russian History, 222-242; Gregory D. Andrusz, Housing and Urban Development in the USSR (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985), 18-19.

8. Bliznakov, "Urban Planning."

9. B. Lunin, ed., Goroda sotsializma i sotsialisticheskaia rekonstruktsiia byta (Moscow, 1930), 157-158.

10. Bliznakov, "Urban Planning"; Parkins, City Planning, 51-55.

11. James H. Bater, The Soviet City (London: Edward Arnold, 1980), 26-27; Henry W. Morton, "The Contemporary Soviet City," in Henry W. Morton and Robert C. Stuart, eds., The Contemporary Soviet City (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1984), 15-18; and Andrusz, Housing and Urban Development , 114-126.

12. For a discussion of the impact of collectivization on traditional Russian patterns of seasonal migration between town and country by economic sector, see the work of Professor Shiokawa Nobuaki (e.g., his "The Collectivization of Agriculture and Otkhodnichestvo in the USSR, 1930," Annals of the Institute of Social Science, University of Tokyo , no. 24 [1982-1983], 129-158; and his "Labor Turnover in the USSR, 1929-33: A Sectorial Analysis," Annals of the Institute of Social Science, University of Tokyo , no. 23 [1982], 65-94).

13. The other six countries with an urban population in excess of 50 million are China, the United States, India, Japan, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Brazil (Iu. L. Pivovarov, Sovremennaia urbanizatsiia osnovnye tendentsii rasseleniia [Moscow: Statistika, 1976], 26). By 1980, 62 percent of the Soviet population had come to live in urban areas (M. G. Rabinovich and M. N. Shmeleva, "Gorod i etnicheskie protsessy," Sovetskaia etnografiia, 1984, no. 2:9), as compared to a U.S. rate of 68.8 percent of the 1975 population liv-

ing in Standard Statistical Metropolitan Areas (A. V. Dmitriev and M. N. Mezhevich, SSSR-SShA: Sotsial'noe razvitie v gorodakh [Leningrad: Nauka—Leningradskoe otdelenie, 1981], 42). For a listing of the 21 Soviet million-plus population centers at the time of the 1979 census, see Morton and Stuart, Contemporary Soviet City, 4.

14. The state committee subordinate to the USSR Council of Ministers responsible for the coordination and management of the preparation of long-and short-term economic plans.

15. The importance of the conflict can hardly be overemphasized. For recent relevant discussions, see Andrusz, Housing and Urban Development, 73-78, and Morton, "Contemporary Soviet City," 3-24.

16. I. M. Solodovnikov, Mestnye sovety: Koordinatsiia i ee effektivnost' (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1980), 3-14. This discussion is based on the administrative system in place during the period of our study. It illustrates some of the tensions that led to various proposals at the Nineteenth Communist Party Conference in June 1988 for a reform of local administration (Philip Taubman, "Conference Seems to Give Gorbachev a Strong Mandate," New York Times, July 5, 1988, pp. A1, A12-A13). The party conference resolutions led to changes in the Soviet Constitution later in 1988, which will be implemented over the coming months. These reforms include multiple candidate elections as well as a restructuring of various state institutions. A new law on the local soviets is expected as this book goes to press. For materials relevant to these reforms, see n. 3, p. 232.

17. Solodovnikov, Mestnye sovety, 15-23.

18. G. V. Barabashev, "Gorodskie sovety v sisteme upravleniia gorodami," in G. V. Barabashev, ed., Rol' mestnykh sovetov v ekonomicheskom i sotsial'nom razvitii gorodov (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo MGU, 1983), 15.

19. Carol W. Lewis, "The Economic Functions of Local Soviets," in Everett M. Jacobs, ed., Soviet Local Politics and Government (London and Boston: George Allen & Unwin, 1983), 38-66.

20. The hierarchical relationship among Soviet cities remains a major theme of much Soviet urban writing. For some recent discussions of this topic, see N. T. Agafonov, "Teoreticheskie i metodicheskie osnovy kontseptsii dolgostrochnogo ekonomicheskogo i sotsial'nogo razvitiia oblasti," in N. T. Agafonov, ed., Sotsial'naia geografiia Kaliningradskoi oblast: Mezhvuzovskii sbornik trudov (Kaliningrad: Izdanie KGU, 1982), 3-12; B. S. Khorev, Territorial'naia organizatsiia obshchestva ( aktual'nye problemy regional'nogo upravleniia i planirovaniia v SSSR ) (Moscow: Mysl', 1981), and P. S. Kovalenko, Razvitie gorodov (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1980).

21. Marat Nikolaevich Mezhevich, interview, February 16, 1984.

22. N. T. Agafonov, "Strukturnye osobennosti krupnykh gorodov kak ob"ektov upravleniia," in I. I. Sigov, ed., Upravlenie razvitiem krupnykh gorodov (Leningrad: Nauka—Leningradskoe otdelenie, 1985), 71-72.

23. This tension was discussed with considerable frankness and in some detail by participants at the Second Scientific Conference of Sociologists of the Baltic, held at Birshtonas on October 29 and 30, 1981 (Institut filosofii, sotsiologii i prava AN Lit SSR, Pribaltiiskoe otdelenie Sovetskoi sotsiologicheskoi assotsiatsii, Gorod kak sreda zhizdnetiatel'nosti cheloveka [Vil'nius, 1981]). For Leningrad views concerning branch-territorial conflicts, see P. N. Lebedev,

ed., Sistema organov gorodskogo upravleniia (opyt sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniia) (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo LGU, 1980); I. I. Sigov, O sovershenstvovanii sochetaniia otraslevogo i territorial'nogo upravleniia (Leningrad: Institut sotsial'no-ekonomicheskikh problem AN SSSR, 1983); and I. I. Sigov, "Sochetanie otraslevogo i territorial'nogo upravleniia gorodom: Problemy i puti sovershenstvovaniia," in Sigov, Upravlenie razvitiem krupnykh gorodov, 148-166. For some representative Western discussions, see David T. Cattell, Leningrad: A Case Study of Soviet Urban Government (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968); Ronald J. Hill, "The Development of Soviet Local Government since Stalin's Death," in Jacobs, Soviet Local Politics, 18-33; and Denis J. B. Shaw, "The Soviet Urban General Plan and Recent Advances in Soviet Urban Planning," Urban Studies 20 (1983):393-403.

24. For further discussion of soviet responsibilities for these concerns, see Gertrude E. Schroeder, "Retail Trade and Personal Services in Soviet Cities," in Morton and Stuart, Contemporary Soviet City, 202-220; David T. Cattell, "Local Government and the Provision of Consumer Goods and Services," in Jacobs, Soviet Local Politics, 172-185; and Henry W. Morton, "Local Soviets and the Attempt to Rationalize the Delivery of Urban Services: The Case of Housing," in ibid., 186-202.

25. "Pervaia sessiia Leningradskogo gorodskogo soveta," Leningradskaia pravda, July 3, 1982, p. 1.

26. See, for example, the discussion of "fundamental directions of the work of soviets" in A. I. Luk'ianov et al., eds., Sovety narodnykh deputatov: Spravochnik (Moscow: Politizdat, 1984), 210-361.

27. "Zakon ob individual'noi trudovoi deiatel'nosti," Leningradskaia pravda, November 21, 1986, pp. 2-3; "O proekte zakona SSSR ob individual'noi trudovoi deiatel'nosti," ibid., November 20, 1986, pp. 1-2.

28. "Eksperiment 'taksi,' " Leningradskaia pravda, February 24, 1987, p. 4; Iu. Trefilov, "Po sovmestitel'stva taksist: V Leningrade vladel'tsty legkovykh avtomobilei prishli na pomoshch' gorodskomu transportu," Sovetskaia Rossiia, March 4, 1987, p. 4.

29. Cattell, Leningrad , 38-48; and Max Ethan Mote, "Leningrad Municipal Administration: Structure and Functions" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1966).

30. Luk'ianov, et al., Sovety narodnykh deputatov, 71-75.

31. V. I. Kozlov, ed., Ocherki istorii Leningradskoi organizatsii KPSS, vol. 3, 1945-1985 (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1985), 955-956.

32. See the discussion in such works as B. K. Alekseev, Planirovanie partiinoi raboty (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1968); and P. P. Mozhaev, comp., Za delovoi stil' v partiinoi rabote (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1981).

33. "Plenum Leningradskogo obkoma KPSS," Leningradskaia pravda, January 22, 1984, p. 1; "Pervaia sessiia Leningradskogo oblastnogo soveta," ibid., July 6, 1982, p. 1.

34. "Plenum Leningradskogo gorkoma KPSS," Leningradskaia pravda, December 18, 1983, p. 1; "Plenum Leningradskogo gorkoma KPSS," ibid., July 3, 1982, p. 1.

35. For further discussion of the nomenklatura system, see Rolf H. W. Theen, "Party and Bureaucracy," in Erik P. Hoffman and Robbin F. Laird, eds.,

The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984), 131-165, as well as the discussion found in Appendix A.

36. Leningrad is within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), which has its republic capital in Moscow. Hence, Moscow is a double capital for Leningrad, being both national and republic.

37. Pavel Viacheslavovich Rusakov became Leningrader no. 5,000,000 when he was born in Maternity Hospital no. 6 on February 25, 1988. Pavel Viacheslavovich has been awarded a special gold medal commemorating his feat ("S dnem rozhdeniia, Leningradets!" Sovetskaia Rossiia, February 26, 1988, p. 1; "V sem'e Leningradtesev Rusakovykh: Nazvali Pavlom," ibid., February 27, 1988, p. 1).

38. Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1985 g.: Statisticheskii ezhegodnik (Moscow: Finansy i statistika, 1986), p. 20; Narodnoe khoziaistvo Leningrada i Leningradskoi oblasti v desiatoi piatiletke: Statisticheskii sbornik (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1981), 24.

39. Narodnoe khoziaistvo Leningrada . . . v desiatoi piatiletke, 39, 41-42.

40. See John Pitzer, "Gross National Product of the USSR, 1950-1980," in U.S. Congress, Joint Economic Committee, U.S.S.R.: Measures of Economic Growth and Development, 1950-1980 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), 17.

41. S. A. Kugel', B. D. Lebin, and Iu. S. Meleshchenko, eds., Nauchnye kadry Leningrada (Leningrad: Nauka—Leningradskoe otdelenie, 1973); and B. I. Kozlov, ed., Organizatsiia i razvitie otraslevykh nauchno-issledovatel'skikh institutov Leningrada, 1917-1977 (Leningrad: Nauka—Leningradskoe otdelenie, 1979).