1. The only reference to medieval monuments at the third congress occurred in Nikolai Sultanov's plea to preserve Russia's ancient architectural heritage: "O neobkhodimosti sokhraneniia nashikh drevnikh pamiatnikov," Trudy III s"ezda russkikh zodchikh (Petersburg, 1905), I:58. The Artistic Section, whose issues had occupied the center of debate in earlier congresses, was represented by only six papers, of which one dealt with Schopenhauer's views on architecture.

2. Alexander Bernardazzi, "Narodnyi muzei budushchego" (The folk museum of the future), Trudy III s"ezda , I:59-62. At the same time that Bernardazzi advocated a union of technology and a new style he was also expressing democratic aspirations by creating for public use great buildings (people's museums) whose scale and function would reinvigorate architecture. The speech was first published at the time of the congress in Zodchii , 1900, no. 8:107.

3. A photograph of the Gausvald dacha appeared in Zodchii , 1900, plate 56. Vladimir Apyshkov mentioned the house as one of the few worthy Russian examples of the new style in his Rational'noe v noveishei arkhitekture (Petersburg, 1905), p. 52.

4. The A. A. Morozov house was photographed frequently as one of Moscow's marvels (see Arkhitckturnye motivy , 1900, no. 3, plate 58). Leo Tolstoi responded to it in a perceptive passage on the economics of conspicuous architectural display in his novel Resurrection (completed in December 1899). At the beginning of part 1, chapter 12, the novel's protagonist, Nekhliudov, rides past it and muses on the absurdity of this "stupid, unnecessary house for some stupid, unnecessary person" who exploits the very workers swarming over the scaffolding. Nekhliudov's cabby objects—"If they're building it, someone must need it"—and observes, unassailably, that the peasants pouring into Moscow from the impoverished villages must have work. The scene is based on Tolstoi's thorough knowledge of the economic dislocation in Russia during the 1890s and its impact on Moscow.

5. Nedelia stroitelia , 1899, no. 28:208-9; see also the supplement of plates on the Metropole in Zodchii of the same year. Interest in the project was so intense that the publisher of Arkhitekturnye motivy , Vladimir Berner, announced the sale of a special album containing the sketches for seven competing designs; by some insight the sketch he chose for his advertisement in the journal (1899, no. 3) was that of Walcot, submitted under the logo "Female Head." Further details of the construction history of the Metropole are provided in V. M. Chekmarev, "Obnovlenie gostinitsy 'Metropol,'" Arkhitektura i stroitel'stvo Moskvy , 1987, no. 6:22-25; and by the same author, "Mir khudozhestvennykh obrazov gostinitsy 'Metropol,'" in Muzei 10 , ed. A. S. Loginova, pp. 35-47.

6. For a discussion of the Walcot houses, see Ivonne d'Axe, "Sovremennaia Moskva" (Contemporary Moscow), Zodchii , 1904, no. 17:201. A survey of Walcot's education and career in Russia is contained in Sergei Romaniuk, "Vil'iam Val'kot (1874-1943)," Stroitel'stvo i arkhitektura Moskvy , 1986, no. 6:24-27.

7. Aleksandr Golovin's designs for the Metropole panels were published in Mir iskusstva , 1901, no. 11-12:151-56. Vrubel's sketch for the panel The Princess of Dreams , originally displayed at the 1896 Nizhni Novgorod exposition, appeared in Mir iskusstva , 1903, no. 10-11, after p. 158. The ceramic work for the Metropole, as for a number of other major architectural projects, was implemented by Savva Mamontov's "Abramtsevo" factory in Moscow, under the supervision of the noted craftsman P. K. Vaulin. One of the more curious features of the Metropole decoration was a ceramic strip at mid-level with a Nietzschean inscription (part of which is still visible): "The same old story: when you have built a house, you notice that you have learned something." Apart from the specific meaning of this cryptic aphorism, the form of the Metropole exemplifies the aestheticization of reality associated with Nietzsche's philosophy.

8. The most authoritative history of the gallery is D. Ia. Bezrukova, Tretiakov i istoriia sozdaniia ego galerei (Moscow, 1970). There are numerous other accounts of the gallery's founding, including, in English, Beverly Kean, All the Empty Palaces (New York, 1983), pp. 66-69.

9. Vasnetsov's work on the facade in 1903 is mentioned in Zodchii , 1903, no. 36:427 ("Khronika"). A photograph of the completed building appeared in the 1906 issue of Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , pp. 16-17. For a discussion of the gallery in relation to other work by Vasnetsov, see Tatiana P. Kazhdan, "Arkhitektura i arkhitekturnaia zhizn' Rossii kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka," in Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka , 1895-1907 , ed. A. D. Alekseeva (Moscow, 1969), 2:305-8.

10. Russia witnessed a flurry of museum construction at the turn of the century, and most of the major buildings—particularly those that housed art collections—followed some variant of the classical temple (Roman Klein's museum of fine arts is discussed in chapter 6).

11. The Proskurin design is analyzed in detail in Elena Volkhovitskaia and Aleksei Tarkhanov, "Dom 'Rossiia,'" Dekorativnoe iskusstvo , 1986, no. 7:34-38. See also Zodchii , 1905, plates 23-25.

12. A brief description of the building and subsequent modifications appears in Iurii Fedosiuk, Moskva v kol'tse sadovykh (Moscow, 1983), p. 376.

13. For a drawing of the Sokol apartment house as originally projected, see Evgeniia I. Kirichenko, Russkaia arkhitektura 1830-1910-kh godov (Moscow, 1978), p. 236. Mashkov's continue

career, including his work for Sokol, is surveyed in B. Brandenburg and Ia. Tatarzhinskaia, "I. P. Mashkov," Arkhitektura SSSR , 1984, no. 2:86-93.

14. Photographs of the Isakov apartment house and other buildings by Kekushev appeared in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 2 (1910-1911), p. 57.

15. See the photographs in ibid., pp. 47-48.

16. Quoted in Fedosiuk, Moskva v kol'tse sadovykh , p. 79.

17. Photographs of the Levin apartment house appeared in Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 1 (1912), pp. 32-34. Soviet sources make scant reference to German's work, although an album by Evgeniia I. Kirichenko (with text in English) contains photographs of the Levin building, including the stairwell: Moscow: Architectural Monuments of the 1830-1910s (Moscow, 1977), pp. 234-37.

18. Maliutin is the subject of a brief but informative article by Sergei Diagilev: "Neskol'ko slov o S. V. Maliutine," in Mir iskusstva , 1903, no. 4:173-75. The article is accompanied by excellent photographs of Maliutin's work, primarily at Talashkino.

19. See William Craft Brumfield, "The Decorative Arts in Russian Architecture, 1900-1907," Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts 5 (1987): 12-27.

20. Grigorii Iu. Sternin, ed., Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura vtoroi poloviny XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow, 1984), p. 179.

21. Many Russian artists elaborated upon the teremok theme—in art, architecture, and stage design. An early example is Ivan Ropet's teremok bathhouse at Abramtsevo (discussed in chapter 1). By the beginning of the century, both Viktor and Apollonarii Vasnetsov, as well as Aleksandr Golovin and Maliutin, had published or displayed (in some cases, built) variants on the teremok . Diagilev ecstatically praised Maliutin's teremok at Talashkino as the expression of a genuinely national, non-Western, architectural form. In Diagilev's view, Maliutin, together with the Finnish painter and designer Gallén-Kallela, had established in northern Europe the basis for a "second rinascimento" that would eventually lead to a "new aesthetic, a new Florence" ("Neskol'ko slov o S. V. Maliutine," pp. 159-60).

22. Written some five years before the completion of the Pertsov building, Igor Grabar's critical analysis of Russian folk motifs applied to contemporary furniture design and the decorative arts seems particularly relevant to the interior of the Pertsov apartment. Although pleased with the success of the Russian pavilion—based on the arts and crafts revival—at the 1900 Paris Exposition, Grabar was concerned about the deliberate crudity with which Russian artists such as Golovin and Polenova incorporated folk art as part of modern design. Acknowledging the aesthetic pleasures of genuine folk art, Grabar nonetheless feared that the excessive imitation, rather than creative reworking, of these motifs leads to cliché—and to furniture that is "hellishly uncomfortable." He noted that "one wants to eat and rest in comfort, without having to face endless lines and colors crawling at you from the wall." His own solution was not to modernize folk art but to revive Russia's Empire furniture designs of the turn of the nineteenth century—thus anticipating the revival of neoclassicism in both architecture and interior design toward 1910. "Neskol'ko myslei o sovremennom prikladnom iskusstve v Rossii," Mir iskusstva , 1902, no. 3:51-56. The artist and photographer Ivan Bilibin, one of the most dedicated students of the traditional art and architecture of the Russian north, also criticized the modern "Russian style" for its superficiality and tendency toward a stereotyped representation of the past: "Narodnoe tvorchestvo severa," Mir iskusstva , 1904, no. 11:303-18 (accompanied by seventy of Bilibin's photographs of folk handicrafts and wooden architecture, primarily churches in the far north).

23. The Pertsov building was the main subject of a laudatory illustrated essay (unsigned) on the neo-Russian style: "Mastera russkogo stilia," Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 2 (1912), pp. 43-49. Elena Borisova presents a sympathetic analysis of Maliutin's design for the Pertsov building in her chapter on the neo-Russian style in Elena A. Bonsova and Tatiana P. Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow, 1971), pp. 162-63. For an illuminating theoretical discussion of the neo-Russian variant of the style moderne and its theatrical quality, see Bonsova, "Neorusskii stil' v russkoi arkhitekture predrevoliutsionnykh let," in Iz istorii russkogo iskusstva vtoroi poloviny XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow, 1978), pp. 59-71. An early expression of support for theatricality in the design of apartment houses appeared in P. Sokolov, "Krasota arkhitekturnykh form," Zodchii , 1912, no. 49:490.

24. Illustrations of Vashkov's work for the Olovianishnikov firm appeared frequently in the architectural annuals, which also contained elaborately designed advertisements for the same firm. See, for example, Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 1 (1909), p. 19. Photographs of the apartment house appeared in the same issue. V. P. Vygolov refers to Vashkov's work at the Trinity Church apartments in "Inter'er," in A. D. Alekseeva, Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka, 1908-1917 (Moscow, 1980), 4:369, 371.

25. Little has been written on Kurdiukov's work, although Borisova offers a perceptive commentary on this building in Borisova and Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura , p. 154. See also "Mastera russkogo stilia," pp. 46, 48.

26. Cf. Paul Thompson's comments on "the ousting of stucco by brick" in London during the latter part of the century and Webb's influence on the transition, in Peter Kidson, Peter Murray, and Paul Thompson, A History of English Architecture (Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 284-85. For a more detailed reference to housing sponsored by the London County Council, see Alastair Service, Edwardian Architecture (New York, 1977), pp. 100-101. In 1913-1914 Kur- soft

diukov built a large apartment house for the School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture in a functional brick style.

27. S. Ia. Timokhovich, in a lecture delivered to the Second Congress of Russian Architects and published in Trudy II s"ezda russkikh zodchikh v Moskve (Moscow, 1899), pp. 179-85, admitted that architects could do little about housing in Russian cities. The lecture, "Proekt blagoustroennikh kvartir v gigienicheskom i sanitarnom otnosheniiakh," assessed the need for "well-organized apartments from a hygienic and sanitary point of view" in four categories of housing: (1) luxury apartments, (2) mid-level ( srednei ruki ) apartment houses, (3) cheap apartments and furnished rooms, and (4) attics, basements, and flophouses. Only in the second category could architects offer immediate improvements in design; Timokhovich dismissed the lower categories as beyond the capabilities of architecture. The Soviet scholars P. Gol'denberg and B. Gol'denberg examine the disparity between housing levels at the beginning of the century in Planirovka zhilogo kvartala Moskvy (Moscow, 1935); pp. 126-78.

28. Vladimir V. Kirillov analyzes in detail the arrangement of apartment space typical in fashionable buildings of the period in Arkhitektura russkogo moderna (Moscow, 1979), pp. 90-93. A more general survey can be found in Gol'denberg and Gol'denberg pp. 136-39. For a discussion of the design of apartment houses in major European cities during this period, see Donald J. Olsen, The City as a Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna (New Haven, 1986). The well-pre-served interior of a style moderne apartment designed around 1910 on Moscow's Tverskaia (now Gorkii) Street is described in O. B. Strugova, "Unikal'nyi moskovskii inter'er epokhi moderna," in Musei 10 , ed. A. S. Loginova, pp. 48-56.

29. For a discussion of spatial arrangements in Moscow's neoclassical homes, see L. V. Tydman's article "Ob" emnoprostranstvennaia kompozitsiia domov-dvortsov XVIII v." In Pamiatniki russkoi arkhitektury i monumental'nogo iskusstva , ed. V. P. Vygolov (Moscow, 1985), pp. 127-47. Cf. also Evgenii Nikolaev, Klassicheskaia Moskva (Moscow, 1975), pp. 184-210.

30. The railway building designs appeared in the illustrated supplement to Zodchii in 1896. No monographic study of Kekushev has been published in the Soviet Union.

31. "Amerikanskii dom," Zodchii , 1903, no. 14:187-88 (text, with photograph and plan).

32. An excellent photograph of the List house (since modified) appeared in Arkhitekturnye motivy , 1900, no. 1:2. Kekushev's own report on the house was published as "Dom O. A. Lista v Moskve," Zodchii , 1901, no. 4:48. The cost of construction was listed at 100,000 rubles.

33. Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 1 (1906), advertising supplement, p. xxxviii.

34. Although the Russian architectural press gave less attention to American than to continental architects, Aleksandr Dmitriv included H. H. Richardson's work in his extensive account of a trip through America, published in several issues of Zodchii for 1905, beginning with no. 27:313-14. See William Craft Brumfield, "Russian Perceptions of American Architecture, 1870-1917," in Architecture and the New Urban Environment (Washington, D.C., 1988), pp. 63-64.

35. For photographs of the Nosikov dacha, see Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 2 (1910-1911), pp. 85-86. Although there is no specific information on Simov and Vesnin's division of labor in designing the dacha, Simov's share in the work is suggested by his prominence and innovations as a set designer in Moscow at the beginning of the century; he had a number of major productions at the Moscow Art Theater to his credit. See M. V. Davydov, "Teatral'no-dekorativnoe iskusstvo" in Alekseeva, Russkaia khudozhestvennaia kul'tura kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka, 1895-1907 (Moscow, 1969), 2:222-29.

36. Photographs of suburban houses designed by Aleksandr Kuznetsov appeared in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 4 (1914-1916), pp. 54-57.

37. Apart from the Islamic elements, the Vesnin sketch resembles the early work of the French architect Rob Mallet-Stevens. See Jean-Francois Pinchon, ed., Rob Mallet-Stevens: Architecture, Furniture, Interior Design (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1989).

38. For a view of the Gostorg building, see William Craft Brumfield, Gold in Azure: One Thousand Years of Russian Architecture (Boston, 1983), p. 351. Most of Velikovskii's work before the revolution belongs to a stripped classical style that prefigures his Constructivist work. For example, see his apartment buildings in Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 3 (1914), pp. 68-69.

39. Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 3 (1914), pp. 55-59.

40. Ibid., pp. 51-54. For a study of log homes in the Adirondacks during the same period, see Harvey Kaiser, Great Camps of the Adirondacks (Boston, 1982).

39. Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 3 (1914), pp. 55-59.

40. Ibid., pp. 51-54. For a study of log homes in the Adirondacks during the same period, see Harvey Kaiser, Great Camps of the Adirondacks (Boston, 1982).

41. See Moskovskii arkhitekturnyi mir , no. 3 (1914), p. 76.

42. The first installment of "Sovremennaia Moskva" appeared in Zodchii , 1904, no. 15:177-80. See chapter 2, n. 48.

43. "Sovremennaia Moskva," Zodchii , 1904, no. 15:179.

44. "Darmshtadtskaia vystavka 1901 goda," Zodchii , 1902, no. 33:371-74; no. 34:379-82.

45. See particularly Zinaida Vengerova's article on William Morris, "Vozrozhdenie dekorativnogo iskusstva" (The rebirth of decorative art) in Arkhitekturnyi muzei , 1903, no. 1:1-9.

46. Mikhail Syrkin, "Novyi stil'" (The new style), Arkhitekturnyi muzei , 1903, no. 2:25-28; no. 3:45-47. break

47. A. G. Uspenskii, "Neskol'ko slov ob angliiskoi narodnoi arkhitekture" (A few words about English folk architecture), Zodchii , 1900, no. 4:47-52.

48. Makarov was the most visible of those who linked the style moderne with the social values of Russia's nascent bourgeoisie. For example, the third part of his survey of the new architecture associates architectural innovation with a general principle of social evolution in the history of civilization. See "Novyi stil' i dekadenstvo" (The new style and decadence), Zodchii , 1902, no. 9:105. Makarov's "Arkhitekturnye mechtaniia" (Architectural musings), Zodchii , 1902, no. 13:161, makes the connection between the new style and the bourgeoisie even more explicit. His encomium to Uspenskii appeared as "Aleksandr Globefish Uspenskii, kak zodchii i khudozhnik," Izvestiia obshchestva grazhdanskikh inzhenerov , 1907, no. 4:110-11.

49. Two essays in the December 1973 issue of Apollo give information on Old Believer families' prominent support of the new art: John E. Bowlt, "Nikolai Ryabushinsky: Playboy of the Eastern world," pp. 486-93; and Michael Ginsberg, "Art Collectors of Old Russia: The Morozovs and the Shchukins," pp. 470-77. See also Beverly Kean, All the Empty Palaces ; and Jo Ann Ruckman, The Moscow Business Elite (De Kalb, Ill., 1984), pp. 68-69. Although the dedication to work and enterprise that characterized the Old Believer community cannot directly explain a particular style of architecture in Old Believer churches, their relatively austere design seems to express a sense of frugality and responsibility to the church community ( obshchina ).

50. "Khram Staroobriadtsev Pomorskogo soglasiia v Moskve," Zodchii , 1908, no. 48:440. See also I. P. Mashkov, Putevoditel' po Moskve (Moscow, 1913), pp. 205-6. Mashkov places the cost of the church at 150,000 rubles.

51. Mashkov, p. 206. According to Mashkov the Church of the Intercession cost "about 140,000 rubles."

52. Ibid. (cost: 70,000 rubles).

51. Mashkov, p. 206. According to Mashkov the Church of the Intercession cost "about 140,000 rubles."

52. Ibid. (cost: 70,000 rubles).

53. See the description, reprinted from a prerevolutionary source, in Moskva zlatoglavaia (Paris, 1980), p. 72.

54. Aleksei Shchusev, "Mysli o svobode tvorchestva v religioznoi arkhitekture," Zodchii , 1905, no. 11:132. Shchusev went considerably beyond church architecture to the role of tradition in architecture. In his view the new emphasis on rationality in construction must not deny traditional nonfunctional elements that are significant in the perception of structure. For an analysis of this principle in the neoRussian variant of the style moderne, with particular reference to Shchusev's churches, see Borisova, "Neorusskii stil'," pp. 61, 65-66. For a more detailed description of Shchusev's church projects, see K. N. Afanasev, A. V. Shchusev (Moscow, 1978), pp. 15-36.

55. Shchusev, "Mysli o svobode tvorchestve v religioznoi arkhitekture," p. 132.

56. Shchusev's sketch for the first variant of the khrampamiatnik appeared in the Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 1 (1906), p. 128. The revised project appeared in no. 6 (1911), p. 147. For a photograph of the project as completed (after the revolution) see A. M. Zhuravlev, A. V. Ikonnikov, and A. G. Rochegov, Arkhitektura Sovetskoi Rossii (Moscow, 1987), p. 41.

57. Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchetva , no. 3 (1912-1913), pp. 135-47. See the description of the Pochaev cathedral in N. L. Zharikov, ed., Pamiatniki gradostroitel'stva i arkhitektury Ukrainskoi SSR v chetyrekh tomakh (Kiev, 1986), 4:78-80. For the Novgorod cathedrals, see Brumfield, Gold in Azure , pp. 42-46. Nikolai Roerich's collaboration with Shchusev in the decoration of the Trinity Cathedral (as well as other churches by Shchusev and Vladimir Pokorvskii) is discussed in L. V. Korotkina, "Rabota N. K. Rerikha s arkhitektorami A. V. Shchusevym i V. A. Pokrovskim," in Muzei 10 , ed. A. S. Loginova, pp. 156-61.

58. See Zharikov, Pamiatniki , 4:113-14; also Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov , no. 10 (1915), pp. 153-59.

59. Zharikov, 2:153-54.

60. See Mashkov, Putevoditel' po Moskve , p. 194; also Moskva zlatoglavaia , p. 65.

61. Borisova and Kazhdan, Russkaia arkhitektura , pp. 256-57.

62. Mashkov, Putevoditel' po Moskve , p. 178. A view of the iconostasis of the Church of the Resurrection was published in Ezhegodnik Moskovskogo arkhitekturnogo obshchestva , no. 4 (1914-1916), p. 82.

63. For a list of church designs by the Vesnin brothers, see K. I. Murashkov, ed., Vesniny: Katalog-putevoditel' po fondam muzeia (Moscow, 1981), pp. 79-83.

64. For the technical aspects of combined construction methods, see Iu. S. Lebedev, ed., Konstruktsii i arkhitekturnaia forma v russkom zodchestve XIX-nachala XX vv . (Moscow, 1977), pp. 19-24, 128-39.

65. Erikhson's mansion for Shchukin joined an earlier "house-museum" built by Boris Freudenberg in 1893-1895. See Mashkov, Putevoditel' po Moskve , pp. 233, 235-36.

66. For a history of the Sytin Printing Works and the subsequent fate of the building, see R. E. Krupnova and V. A. Rezvin, Ulitsa Gor'kogo, 18 (Moscow, 1984), pp. 14-17.

67. During the 1930s the brick facing was removed from the first floor and replaced with stucco rusticated in imitation of stone. During the same period the original interior underwent a complete modification.

68. A description of work on the north wing of the Polytechnical Museum was published in Zodchii , 1903, no. 37:143. For an analysis and plan of the museum, see A. I. continue

Komech, ed., Pamiatniki arkhitektury Moskvy , 2d ed. (Moscow, 1983), p. 489.

69. Lebedev, Konstruktsii i arkhitekturnaia forma , pp. 155-56.

70. For comments on Klein's eclectic approach and the "timid" design of the store's main hall, see Evgeniia I. Kirichenko, Moskva na rubezhe dvukh stoletii (Moscow, 1977), p. 102.

71. Zodchii , 1904, no. 18:215.