1. William deMille to Cecil B. DeMille, 3 September 1913, and William deMille to David Belasco, 25 July 1911, William deMille Papers, New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division; William deMille, Hollywood Saga (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1939), 18. William, unlike Cecil, signed his last name with a lower case d.

2. Adolph Zukor, "Famous Players in Famous Plays," MPW , 11 July 1914, 186.

3. See A. Nicholas Vardac, Stage to Screen: Theatrical Origins of Early Film: David Garrick to D. W. Griffith (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949; New York: DaCapo, 1987); Rick Altman, "Dickens, Griffith, and Film Theory Today," South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (Spring 1988): 321-359. See also Tom Gunning, D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative Film (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); Gunning, "Weaving a Narrative: Style and Economic Background in Griffith's Biograph Films," Quarterly Review of Film Studies 6 (Winter 1981): 11-26. Charles Musser contests Gunning's argument regarding the industry's attempt to woo the middle class in "The Nickelodeon Era Begins: Establishing the Framework for Hollywood's Mode of Representation," Framework 22/23 (Autumn 1983): 4-11. See also Musser, The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990); Musser with Carol Nelson, High-Class Moving Pictures: Lyman H. Howe and the Forgotten Era of Traveling Exhibition, 1880-1920 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991). On the class composition of early film audiences, see Janet Staiger, Interpreting Films: Studies in the Historical Reception of American Cinema (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), chap. 5; Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship and Silent Cinema (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Judith Mayne, "Immigrants and Spectators," Wide Angle 5, no. 2: 32-40; Mayne, Private Novels, Public Films (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1988); Charlie Keil, "Reframing the Italian: Questions of Audience Address in Early Cinema," Journal of Film and Video 42 (Spring 1990): 36-48; William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson, "'Films of Quality,' 'High Art Films' and 'Films de Luxe': Intertextuality and Reading Positions in the Vitagraph Films," Journal of Film and Video 41 (Winter 1989): 15-31; Uricchio and Pearson, Reframing Culture: The Case of the Vitagraph Quality Films (forthcoming, Princeton University Press); Roberta Pearson, "Cultivated Folks and the Better Classes: Class Conflict and Representation in Early American Film,'' Journal of Popular Film and Television 15 (Fall 1987): 120-128; Douglas Gomery, "Movie Audiences, Urban Geography, and the History of the American Film," Velvet Light Trap 19 (1982): 23-29; Robert C. Allen, ''Motion Picture Exhibition in Manhattan, 1906-1912: Beyond the Nickelodeon," Cinema Journal 17 (Spring 1979): 2-15; reprinted in John L. Fell, ed., Film Before Griffith (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 144-152; Allen, Vaudeville and Film 1895-1915: A Study in Media Interaction (New York: Arno Press, 1980); Russell Merritt, "Nickelodeon Theaters 1905-1914: Building an Audience for the Movies," in Tino Balio, ed., The American Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975), 59-82; Garth S. Jowett, "The First Motion Picture Audiences," in John L. Fell, ed., Film Before Griffith , 196-206; Ben Singer, "The Embourgeoisement Thesis and Silent American Cinema: Revising the Revisionists" (Paper delivered at Society for Cinema Studies Conference, New Orleans, 1993).

4. Jesse L. Lasky with Cecil B. DeMille, Agreement, 16 October 1913, DMA, BYU.

5. Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 86, 23, 76, parts 1 and 2. Levine's argument is anticipated by Neil Harris (see note 6 below) and David Grimsted, Melodrama Unveiled: American Theater and Culture, 1800-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987, with an introduction by Levine). See also Paul Dimaggio, "Cultural Entrepreneurship in Nineteenth-Century Boston: The Creation of an Organizational Base for High Culture in America," Media, Culture and Society 4 (January 1982): 33-50.

6. Neil Harris, "Four Stages of Cultural Growth: The American City," in Arthur Mann, Neil Harris, and Sam Bass Warner, Jr., History and Role of the City in American Life (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1972), 25-49; reprinted in Harris, Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 12-28. See also Dale A. Somers, "The Leisure Revolution: Recreation in the American City, 1820-1920," Journal of Popular Culture 5 (Summer 1971): 125-145.

7. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow , 76, part 3; Daniel Czitrom, Media and the American Mind (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), chap. 2; Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), chap. 1; John S. Gilkeson, Jr., Middle-Class Providence, 1820-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), chap. 6; Levine has been criticized for not taking into account the pervasive influence of Protestantism on American culture. See David D. Hall, "A World Turned Upside Down?" Reviews in American History , March 1990, 11-13.

8. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow , 221-222, part 3; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism 1860-1925 (1963; reprint, New York: Atheneum, 1981), 113-157. See also Barbara Miller Solomon, Ancestors and Immigrants: A Changing New England Tradition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956; Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989); David H. Bennett, The Party of Fear: From Nativist Movements to the New Right in American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).

9. See Robert Sklar, Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of American Movies (New York: Random House, 1975). Sklar argues that his work is still relevant in "Oh! Althusser!: Historiography and the Rise of Cinema Studies," Radical History Review 41 (Spring 1988): 10-35, reprinted in Sklar and Charles Musser, eds., Resisting Images: Essays on Cinema and History (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 12-35. Donald Crafton and Janet Staiger disagree in a special issue of Iris , on early cinema audiences (Summer 1990): 1, 24. See also Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); Garth Jowett, Film: Tile Democratic Art (Boston: Little, Brown, 1976); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986). For an exchange between Sklar and May, see American Historical Review 86 (October 1981): 945-946; and 87 (June 1982): 913-915. Among other issues, they disagree about the argument in Screening Out the Past that the film industry was the "handmaiden of Progressivism." Rosenzweig and Couvares argue that far from exerting control over mass communications, upper- and middle-class reformers were displaced by the leisure industry. See also Nancy J. Rosenbloom, "Between Reform and Regulation: The Struggle over Film Censorship in Progressive America, 1909-1922," Film History 1 (1987): 307-325, and "Progressive Reform, Censorship, and the Motion Picture Industry, 1909-1917,'' in Ronald Edsforth and Larry Bennett, eds., Popular Culture and Political Change in Modern America (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), 41-60. On the issue of Progressivism, see Richard L. McCormick's assertion, "we cannot avoid the concept of progressivism—or even a progressive movement—because. . . after 1910, the terms were deeply embedded in the language of reformers,'' in his Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics firm the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 269. See also Peter G. Filene, "An Obituary for the Progressive Movement," American Quarterly 22 (Spring 1970): 20-34; David M. Kennedy, "The Progressive Era," The Historian 37 (1975): 453-468; Daniel T. Rogers, "In Search of Progressivism," Reviews in American History 10 (December 1982): 113-132. Standard works on the Progressive Era include Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F. D. R . (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955); Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order 1877-1920 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1967).

10. See Deborah Anne Federhen, Bradley C. Brooks, Lynn A. Brocklebank, Kenneth L. Ames, and E. Richard McKinstry, Accumulation and Display: Mass Marketing Household Goods in America, 1880-1920 (Wilmington: Union Press, 1986).

11. "Lasky and DeMille Enter Picture Field," MPN , 20 December 1913, 15.

12. Interview with Adolph Zukor, 3 April 1957, in Executives, Adolph Zukor folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. Because box and folder numbers have been rearranged since I completed most of my research, I have not included that information. See James V. D'Arc, ed., The Register of the Cecil B. DeMille Archives (Provo: Brigham Young University, 1991). As for citations of interviews with DeMille, these sessions were tape-recorded for an autobiography that was prepared by Art Arthur and Donald Hayne and that was published posthumously. Unlike the publication, the interviews provide more insight into the director's personality. Unfortunately, the transcripts were cut up and filed according to topics and therefore do not exist in their entirety. See James v. D'Arc, "'So Let It Be Written. . .': The Creation of Cecil B. DeMille's Autobiography," Literature/Film Quarterly 14 (1986): 1-9.

13. K. Owen, "The Kick-In Prophets," Photoplay , October 1915, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

14. On auteurism, see John Caughie, ed., Theories of Authorship (London: Rout-ledge & Kegan Paul, 1981); David Bordwell, Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 151-165, passim; Roland Barthes, "The Death of an Author," in Image-Music-Text , trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill & Wang, 1977), 142-148; Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" in Donald F. Bouchard, ed., Language, Counter-Memory, Practice , trans. Donald F. Bouchard and Sherry Simon (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), 113-138; Andrew Sarris, The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929-1968 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1968). Sarris ranks DeMille as a metteur en scène , as do French critics, rather than an auteur. See Jacques Second, "Les Livres,'' Positif 167 (March 1975): 86-87.

15. K. Owen, "Dustin Farnum," Photoplay , July 1915, 123; Johnson Briscoe, "Photoplays vs Personality: How the Identity of the Players is Fast Becoming Known," Photoplay , March 1914, 39.

16. "Lasky Films Coming Oscar Apfel to Direct Company Leaving for Pacific Coast Soon," NYDM , 10 December 1913, 27; "Organize Lasky Forces," NYDM , 17 December 1913, 26; Robert Grau, The Theatre of Science (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1914), 165-166.

17. David Bordwell, Janet Staiger, and Kristin Thompson differentiate between cross-cutting and parallel editing in The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 48. Eileen Bowser gives a history of editing terms in The Transformation of Cinema 1907-1915 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990), 58-59.

18. "The Squaw Man," MPW , 28 February 1914, 1068; "The Squaw Man," NYDM , 25 February 1914, 37; Kenneth Macgowan, Behind the Screen: The History and Techniques of the Motion Picture (New York: Delacorte Press, 1965), 163. The photo by J. A. Ramsey is reproduced in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1991), 36-37. According to James V. D'Arc, studio correspondence in the DeMille Archives attests that Apfel was highly valued in 1914 but posed unspecified "problems" in 1915.

19. Interview with DeMille, 25 April 1957, in Biography folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; Beatrice DeMille, "The DeMille Family in Motion Pictures," NYDM , 4 August 1917, 4.

20. Feet of Clay folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

21. "Getting Belasco Atmosphere," MPW , 30 May 1914, 1271. Detailed descrip- tions of the staging of Belasco plays are in A. Nicholas Vardac, Stage to Screen ; Lise-Lone Marker, David Belasco: Naturalism in the American Theatre (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975). Significantly, Belasco does not acknowledge Buckland, who had been his pupil at the Lyceum Theatre School of Acting, later the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, either in his own writing, The Theatre through Its Stage Door (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1919), or in William Winter's two-volume biography, The Life of David Belasco (1918; reprint, Fairport: Books for Libraries Press, 1970).

22. Script of The Cheat , USC; Interview with DeMille, 5 June 1957, in Lighting folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. See Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), 65-73; Peter Baxter, "On the History and Ideology of Film Lighting," Screen 16 (Autumn 1975): 96-97; Bordwell, Staiger, and Thompson, The Classical Hollywood Cinema , 224-225; Lea Jacobs, "Lasky Lighting," in Cherchi Usai and Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy , 250-261. For a discussion of color tinting and toning, see Paolo Cherchi Usai, "The Color of Nitrate," Image 34 (Spring/Summer 1991): 29-38. Fittingly, when DeMille was made an honorary member of the Society of Motion Picture Art Directors, he claimed that his contribution lay in securing Buckland's talent for film production. (Wilfred Buckland folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.)

23. DeMille to Lasky, 7 June 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder; DeMille to Arthur S. Friend, 28 October 1916, in Arthur S. Friend 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

24. Interview with DeMille, 25 April 1957, in Biography folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

25. "Lasky Gets Belasco Plays," MPW, 6 June 1914, 1412; "Lasky's First Year," MPW 9 January 1915, 674; Interview with DeMille, 25 April 1957, in Biography folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

26. "A New Outlet for Genius," NYDM , 17 February 1915, 23; The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , ed. Donald Hayne (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 106.

27. See cover, MPN , 20 February 1915; "More Belasco Plays by Lasky," MPW , 25 March 1916, 2035; "Close-Ups," Photoplay , July 1918, 75.

28. DeMille to Goldfish, 23 July 1914, DMA, BYU (Although Goldfish had not yet changed his name, I refer to him in the text as Goldwyn, as he was known for most of his career.); "Men Who Owe Success to the Movies," Los Angeles Examiner , 2 July 1916, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; "Lasky Views the Future," MPW , 27 March 1915, 1911.

29. "William C. DeMille with Lasky," NYDM , 30 September 1914, 25; William deMille to Anna DeMille, 16 October 1914, William deMille cage file, LMPA.

30. "Lasky Scholarship for College Scenario Course," MPN 6 November 1915, 76; "Lasky Company Offers Scholarship to Columbia Students," MPW , 30 October 1915, 765; William deMille to Anna DeMille, 16 October 1914, William deMille cage file, LMPA; Lasky to Goldfish, 11 October 1915, and 2 October 1915, DMA, BYU. Although William deMille wrote satisfactory scripts, apparently he was not an able administrator. Lasky wrote to Goldfish, "We are preparing to let Billy direct. . . and if he doesn't make us a first class picture, we will put him back to writing but not to head the Department." Later, he stated more bluntly, ''William was useless as head of the Scenario Department.'' (Lasky to Goldfish, 11 October 1915, and 25 October 1915, DMA, BYU.)

31. DeMille to Arthur S. Friend, 13 September 1916, in Arthur S. Friend 1916 folder; Lasky to DeMille, 14 September 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU; Julian Johnson wrote in "The Shadow Stage" ( Photoplay , December 1916, 83), "for months this fine studio . . . has sent out the dullest, most conventional plays." Johnson's observation supports Lasky's contention, "The real reason why Famous Players finally gave in to coming in with us on an even 50-50 basis was because they finally realized that they were in a hole regarding scenarios, stories and productions and could not keep up pace'' (Lasky to DeMille, 27 June 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU); Jesse L. Lasky, I Blow My Own Horn (London: Victor Gallanez, 1957), 102; DeMille to Goldfish, 17 September 1914, DMA, BYU.

32. "Lasky Makes Radical Move," NYDM , 1 July 1916, 46; Lasky to DeMille, 21 July 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

33. Lasky to Goldfish, 6 July 1915, DMA, BYU.

34. Program for Chimmie Fadden , Strand Theatre, New York, 27 June 1915, Chimmie Fadden clipping file, LMPA.

35. R. Grau, "A New Invasion of Filmdom," Motion Pictures , September 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Lasky to DeMille, 9 June 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU. As company correspondence shows, Farrar was regarded as a major asset during negotiations for the merger.

36. "Geraldine Farrar for the Screen," MPW , 8 May 1915, 879; "Lasky Signs Farrar," NYDM , 5 May 1915, 22; Geraldine Farrar, "Why I Went into Motion Pictures," in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

37. "Miss Farrar Confers with Belasco," Musical America , 14 November 1908, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Girl of the Golden West folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; DeMille claimed that Puccini "borrowed" musical themes in Butterfly from William Furst, who was Belasco's composer before he wrote orchestral music for silent film.

38. Irving Kolodin, The Metropolitan Opera 1883-1966 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 285. Although she expressed doubts about marriage, Farrar married Lou Tellegen in 1916. DeMille gave Tellegen an opportunity to direct that he did not wish to repeat. As a result, Farrar broke with Lasky and signed with Goldwyn (who had formed his own company after Zukor ousted him from Famous Players-Lasky) and subsequently with Pathé; her later films never won the acclaim that she enjoyed in Lasky films. Scripts of Farrar films, DeMille and Goldwyn Collections, USC. See Far-rat autobiography, Such Sweet Compulsion (New York: Greystone Press, 1938).

39. Although Carmen was distributed first, DeMille decided to test Farrar before the camera in Maria Rosa , released as her third film; he needn't have worried. Farrar's acting in Maria Rosa was impressive, especially in the final sequence when she stabs her husband, who dies while clutching her hair on their wedding day. Julian Johnson wrote in Photoplay , July 1916: "Farrar performs such a symphony of glowing love, purple hate, and magnificent murder as our screens have seldom reflected."

40. "New York Papers Praise Carmen," MPW , 6 November 1915, 116; "Two Carmens Create Keen Rivalry in Terre Haute," MPN , 20 November 1915, 49; "Lasky Co. Expanding," NYDM , 30 June 1915, 21; The Opera Magazine , October 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; MPN cover, 9 November 1915.

41. I am describing the George Eastman House nitrate print of Carmen , which is tinted, as was the original, but was reedited as a reissue in 1918. After comparing scripts of Carmen , including the original by William deMille and a later version, dated May 18, 1918, with instructions for editing the reissued film, I doubt that the original print exits. Apparently, the extant DeMille silents, preserved in a specially built vault on the director's estate before they were deposited at George Eastman House, are not all original releases. Scripts, Paramount Collection, AMPAS.

42. "Lasky Takes 'Carmen' Fight with Censors to Court," MPN , 23 October 1915, 77; "Geraldine Farrar Seen but Not Heard," New York Times , 1 November 1915, 11; "Grand Opera's Wildest Sensation since Salome," in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Kolodin, The Metropolitan Opera , 262; "Hodkinson Ideas Realized in Paramount Films,'' MPN , 27 November 1915, 80; Chicago Strand Theatre Program, Carmen clipping file, LMPA. Compared with other Lasky Company pictures distributed by Paramount, ticket prices for Carmen were higher.

43. "Geraldine Farrar Scores," MPN , 16 October 1915, 43; "Stubbornness of Geraldine," NYDM , 1 April 1916, 32; "Miss Farrar as a Movie Carmen," Hartford Daily , 4 October 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; "Geraldine Farrar's 'Carmen' a Splendid Performance,'' NYDM , 6 November 1915, 28.

44. Kirk Bond, "Eastman House Journal," Film Culture 47 (Summer 1969): 45. William deMille was less than charitable when he saw a print of Carmen during the sound era: "Looked at with 1935 eyes, our picture was badly photographed, the lighting was childish, the acting was awful, the writing atrocious and—may Allah be merciful—the direction terrible." By the 1930s, however, the DeMille brothers' earlier camaraderie had been superceded by personal, financial, and ideological disagreements. See William deMille, Hollywood Saga , 155.

45. Jesse L. Lasky, I Blow My Own Horn , 116.

46. "Feature Film," MPN , 25 October 1913, 17; Leslie T. Peacocke, "The Practical Side of Scenario Writing," Photoplay , May 1914, 132.

47. Jesse L. Lasky, "Accomplishments of the Feature," MPW , 11 July 1914, 214. Garth Jowett argues in Film: The Democratic Art that "the development of film criticism, and the prominence given to film journalism of all types, was a major factor in the expansion of the industry by attracting a class of patrons curious to see this 'new art' "(98). See also Myron O. Lounsbury, The Origins of American Film Criticism 1909-1939 (New York: Arno Press, 1973).

48. "The Squaw Man," MPW , 28 February 1914, 1068; William A. Johnston, "The Rose of the Rancho," MPN , 28 November 1914, 41; "What's His Name," MPN , 7 November 1914, 39; "Feature Films of the Week," NYDM , 24 February 1915, 29; MPW , 1 May 1915, 743; DeMille to Goldfish, 23 July 1914, DMA, BYU.

49. Vachel Lindsay, The Art of the Moving Picture (New York: Liveright, 1915). See Nick Browne, "Orientalism as an Ideological Form: American Film Theory in the Silent Period," Wide Angle 11 (October 1989): 23-31.

50. W. Stephen Bush, "Kindling," MPW , 24 July 1915, 655; "The Golden Chance," MPW , 8 January 1916, 255; New York Dramatic News , 6 November 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Interview with DeMille, 5 June 1957, in Lighting folder; Interview with DeMille, 3 July 1957, in The Warrens of Virginia folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; Margaret I. MacDonald, "The Director as a Painter and the Players His Colors," NYDM , 14 January 1914, 50.

51. Robert M. Crunden, Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization, 1889-1920 (New York: Basic Books, 1972), chap. 4; James Lincoln Collier, The Rise of Selfishness in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 2.

52. Boston Transcript , 28 December 1912; William deMille, "Speech before the Drama League at the Plymouth Theater," unidentified clipping; "You Can't Uplift the Drama," New York Sun , 28 October 1911, in William deMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; ''The Heart and Soul of Motion Pictures," NYDM , 12 June 1920, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

53. "Moving Pictures a Social Force," MPN , 6 September 1913, 15; MacDonald, "The Director as a Painter and the Players His Colors," 50; "Call of the North," MPW , 22 August 1914, 1080; ''Close-Ups," Photoplay , June 1916, 63-64.

54. "Jesse L. Lasky in Pictures," MPW , 3 January 1914, 35; Lasky to Goldfish, 14 January 1915, DMA, BYU; Kenneth Macgowan, Behind the Screen , 166; Lasky, I Blow My Own Horn , 112. Interestingly, Lasky wrote to Goldwyn, "We have just decided to take Hector Turnbull off all writing entirely as his scenarios are not proving satisfactory, and instead, we are going to have him supply original ideas so that we will have plenty to choose from when we want plays for the other writers to prepare." (Lasky to Goldfish, 19 October 1915, DMA, BYU.)

55. Barbara Beach, "The Literary Dynamo," MPM , July 1921: 54-55, 81.

56. William Ressman Andrews, "The Cheat," MPN , 25 December 1915, 127; "The Golden Chance," NYDM , 29 January 1915, 50; William deMille, Hollywood Saga , 139; Samuel Goldwyn, Behind the Screen (New York: George H. Doran, 1939), 82; Interview with DeMille, 23 July 1957, in The Cheat, Chimmie Fadden, Chimmie Fadden Out West folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. According to DeMille, "Up to this time, foreign receipts would be $10,000 or $4,000—that sort of thing . . . . The Cheat did $41,000 foreign."

57. Cecil B. DeMille with Famous Players-Lasky Corporation, Cecil B. DeMille cage file, LMPA.

58. "The Motion Picture News Hall of Fame," MPN , 30 December 1922, 32. Also inducted were Adolph Zukor, Samuel Rothapfel, Mary Pickford, Charles Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, George Eastman, Thomas Edison, John D. Williams, Will Hays, and Carl Laemmle.

59. Staiger, Interpreting Films , chap. 5, Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will , chap. 8, Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars , chap. 12, Peiss, Cheap Amusements , chap. 6; Hansen, Babel and Babylon , chap. 2, Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chap. 3; Gunning, D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative , 256-257. On working-class cinema, see Kay Sloan, The Loud Silents: Origins of the Social Problem Film (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Steven J. Ross, "Struggles for the Screen: Workers, Radicals, and the Political Uses of Film," American Historical Review 96 (April 1991): 336-367; Ross, "Cinema and Class Conflict: Labor, Capital, the State and American Silent Film," in Robert Sklar and Charles Musser, eds., Resisting Images , 68-107. Ben Singer argues that cinema audiences remained working class during the 1910s in "The Embourgeoisement Thesis and Silent American Cinema: Revising the Revisionists." On modes of production and representation in relation to class, see note 3 above.

60. Douglas Gomery, "The Picture Palace: Economic Sense or Hollywood Nonsense?" Quarterly Review of Film Studies 3 (Winter 1978): 24-25. See also Gomery, Shared Pleasures: A History of Movie Presentation in the United States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), part 1.

61. Cincinnati Inquirer , 6 December 1908; The Bookman , 1911, in William deMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

62. See Lise-Lone Marker, David Belasco , Introduction.

63. Photoplay , May 1918, 20-39; November 1914, 55-75; January 1915, 39-56.

64. Charles Musser challenges A. Nicholas Vardac's argument that stage melodrama could easily be adapted without dialogue for the screen in "The Nickelodeon Era Begins," 6.

65. See Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture ; Janice Radway, "The Scandal of the Middlebrow: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Class Fracture, and Cultural Authority," South Atlantic Quarterly 89 (Fall 1990): 703-736. See also Rubin, "Between Culture and Consumption: Mediations of the Middlebrow," in Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears, eds., The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993): 163-194. Radway differentiates her study from Rubin's by asserting that middlebrow culture was ''a separate aesthetic and ideological production constructed by a particular fraction of the middle class."

66. See Jowett's discussion of the rise of the star system, features, and movie palaces in Film: The Democratic Art , chap. 3; Richard deCordova, Picture Personalities: The Emergence of the Star System in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).

67. See Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will , chap. 8; Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh , chap. 8; Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars , chap. 12; Peiss, Cheap Amusements , chap. 6; Gilkeson, Jr., Middle-Class Providence , chap. 6. See also note 3 above.

68. "William DeMille Talks on the Drama," MPW , 9 October 1915, 258; "Close-Ups," Photoplay , August 1915, 121.

69. L. C. Moon, "Statistics of the Motion Picture Industry," MPN , 16 December 1922, 3024. Exhibition statistics during the period 1916-1922 were considered relatively unchanged.

70. See Richard Koszarski, An Evening's Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915-1928 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990).