1. Lorenzo García, Apuntes sobre la campaña contra los salvajes en el estado de Sonora, (Hermosillo: Imprenta de Roberto Bernal, 1883 ), 6.

2. Hogan, "The Frontier as Social Control," 35-52.

3. González Ramírez, "Fuentes para la historia," 2: 400-409.

4. Warren, Dust and Foam, 202. Also William Perkin, William Perkin's Journal of Life at Sonora, 1848-1852, ed. James Scobie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964), 312.

5. M. Theirs, speech in the French Chamber, cited in John Hall, Travel and Adventures in Sonora, 145.

6. Silvio Zavala, "The Frontiers of Hispanic America," in The Frontier in Perspective, ed. Walker D. Wyman and Clifton B. Kroeber (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957), 48.

7. Ernesto de Vigneaux, Viaje a México (Guadalajara: Banco Industrial de Jalisco, 1950), 11.

8. León-Portilla, "The Norteño Variant," 103.

9. Aguilar Camín, "The Relevant Tradition," 107.

10. See AHGES, carpeton 293, January 19, 1856, governor of Sonora to president of the Junta de Fomento of Guaymas.

11. de Vigneaux, Viaje a México, 11.

12. . García, Apuntes sobre la campaña, 6.

13. See Hu-DeHart, Yaqui Resistance and Survival, 94. The Yaquis were repeatedly accused of seeking to maintain "a nation within the state."

14. José Velasco, Noticias estadsticas, 96. Velasco feared that if ever the

Apaches in the north and the Yaqui in the south formed an alliance, Mexican Sonora would be lost.

15. Hu-Dehart, Yaqui, Resistance and Survival, xii. Hu-Dehart places the number of Yaquis at approximately 11,501. See also Stone, Notes on Sonora, 18. Stone places their numbers at between 10,000 and 12,000.

16. AHGES, carpeton 365, March 25, 1861, prefect of Hermosillo, M. Escalante, to Governor Ignacio Pesqueira.

17. AHGES, tomo 2193, exp. 4, 1907, list of persons in Guaymas who had taken captured Yaqui children as servants.

18. Sergio Ortega Noriega, "La Mision de la Pimeria Alta," in Historia general de Sonora, de la conquista al estado libre y soberano de Sonora, ed. Ignacio del Río y Sergio Ortega Noriega (Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado, 1985), 124. Also Corral, Obras históricas, 257.

19. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, 115-16.

20. Corral, Obras históricas, 259.

21. BCUSCN, tomo 3, 1850, May 18, 1852, Cayetano Navarro, prefect of Salvación, to acting governor, Fernando Cubillas.

22. Manuel González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora 1900-1950," vol. 2, Cayetano Navarro, April 25, 1850, 556-57.

23. BCUSCN, Colección Pesqueira, tomo 3, May 18, 1852, Cayetano Navarro to acting governor Fernando Cubillas.

24. BCUSCN, Colección Pesqueira, tomo 3, May 25, 1852, Fernando Cubillas to General Miguel Blanco.

25. González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora," 2: 559. Contract between José de Aguilar, acting governor, and Pablo Rubio and Jesús Moreno for Tiburón. The two speculators took possession of the island but eventually lost the contract.

26. Corral, Obras históricas, 212.

27. See Lejeune, La guerra Apache, 21. Also see AHGES, carpeton 449, June 23, 1873, prefect of Moctezuma, J. Aragón, to secretary of state.

28. BCUSCN, Colección Pesqueira, Serie 3, 1851-1856, La Voz de Sonora, tomo I, no. 10, November 30, 1855. The secretaría de gobierno reports the state's population at 124,979 inhabitants. Of that figure, only 33,118 resided in the four northern districts. Statistics by district were as follows: Altar, 5,311 San Ignacío (later known as Magdalena), 6,987 (this figure still included settlements such as Tucson which no longer belonged to México); Arizpe, 8,488; and Moctezuma, 12,332. Velasco argued that the state's population did not exceed 100,000 between 1845 and 1850 (José Velasco, Noticias estadísticas ). Also see Forbes, Apache, Navajo, and Spaniard, 207-8.

29. Stone, Notes on Sonora, 21-23.

30. José Velasco, Noticias estadísticas, 96.

31. Annual Report of the Commercial Relations ( 1871 ), 904. Consul Alexander Willard, Guaymas, Sonora. Willard reported that the state's population had decreased from 150,000 during the 1830s to 108,211 in 1869.

32. Ibid. A large percentage of births, especially in rural areas, were never recorded. This may account for the large discrepancy between deaths and births. Nonetheless the figure serves to underscore the calamitous situation confronted by the state as a result of the wars with Apaches and Yaquis.

33. AHGES, carpeton 344, February 16, 1859, residents of Altar to the governor. The letter argued that Apache raids made it impossible to engage in commercial relations with other parts of the state.

34. AHMRUS, Periódicos, La Voz del Pueblo (Ures), December 1, 1852, 2.

35. See Valencia Ortega, "La formación," 6-9.

36. Cummings, Cincinnati and Sonora Mining Association, 8.

37. Ibid., 4.

38. González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora," 2: 467; El Sohorense (Ures), February 7, 1850, tomo 3, no. 7, governor to inhabitants.

39. See Treutlein, Missionary in Sonora .

40. "Nacionales de Cumpas," Estrella de Occidente, March 19 1869. Payment for scalps. Also Estrella de Occidente, December 31, 1869. During 1869 the government earmarked 12,000 pesos for Apache scalps.

41. AHMRUS, Colección Periódicos, El Sonorense (Ures), June 14, 1850, 3.

42. AHGES, carpeton 422, September 28, 1870, prefect of Hermosillo to municipal authorities. Also see Annual Report of the Commercial Relations (1871), 299.

43. John Hall, Sonora, 148.

44. Lejeune, La guerra Apache, 21.

45. Corral Obras históricas, 85. Corral described one battle in 1871 between Tohono O'odhams and Apaches which left over one hundred dead.

46. Zuñiga, Rapida ojeada, 113.

47. Corral Obras históricas, 107. Also Wyllys, The French in Sonora, 50.

48. García, Apuntes sobre la campaña, 10.

49. Mowry, Arizona and Sonora, 35.

50. See Reminiscences of John B. Frisbee, 1823-1909, Bancroft Library, m-m 351, HG 79-80. Frisbee was a young army officer during the Mexican-American war.

51. Stone, Notes on Sonora, 23.

52. González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora," 2: 483.

53. AHGES, carpeton 422, January 26, 1870, report of Wenceslao Martínez to governor. Martínez informed the governor that Apaches had been seen in the vicinity of San José de Guaymas, 5 miles southeast of Guaymas.

54. See Zamora, La Cohetera, mi barrio, 47.

55. Warren, Dust and Foam, 170

56. AHGES, carpeton 433, March 14, 1871, prefect of Hermosillo to governor.

57. González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora," 3: 644.

58. Ibid., 2: 401, 649-50, December 20, 1842, testimony of Ignacio Peraza and Ignacio Gálvez before the prefect of Hermosillo.

59. See El Sonorense (Ures), October 13, 1848, Gándara to Ministro de Guerra y Marina.

60. Eduardo W. Villa, Historia del Estado de Sonora (Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado, 1984), 242.

61. González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora," 2: 403-6.

62. Ibid., 2: 658. Also see Beene, "Sonora," 20.

63. González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora," 1: 38.

64. See, for example, AHGES, carpeton 424, September 6, 1845, ranch of José Terminel. Terminel cast forty-five votes, in the name of all Indian employees.

65. AHGES, carpeton 449, January 20, 1873. See "Petition of the Residents of Sahuaripa concerning Constitutional Reforms number 36, to Governor and State Assembly." (Reform no. 36 dealt with the Yaqui and Mayo right to vote.) Also see ABO, "Reformas Constitucionales," La Estrella de Occidente, November 29, 1872, 3.

66. ABO, "Reformas Constitucionales," La Estrella de Occidente, November 29, 1872, 3.

67. Manuel Corbala Acuña, Sonora y sus constitucioñes (Hermosillo: Editorial libros de México, 1972), 114. Copy of the 1861 Constitución and the applicable reforms incorporated in 1872-1873.

68. Corral, Obras históricas, 81.

69. AHGES, carpeton 422, May 28 and May 30, 1870, prefect Guaymas to interim prefect, Francisco Serna. Attack on Guaymas by Fortino Vizcaíno.

70. See "Juan Sin Miedo," Mazatlán, June 20, 1870, in Dispatches from the United States Consuls, Guaymas, September 30, 1870, Alexander Willard.

71. See Hobsbawm, Bandits, 24.

72. Slatta, Bandidos, 3.

73. Corral, Obras históricas, "Biografía de José María Leyva Cajeme."

74. For a similar experience, see Paul Vanderwood, "Nineteenth-Century Mexico's Profiteering Bandits," in Slatta, Bandidos, 11.

75. Cornbier, Voyage, 219.

76. AHGES, carpeton 449, January 25, 1873, prefect of Hermosillo to governor.

77. AHGES, carpeton 458, June 1, 1874, pena de muerte segun ley de saltadores y plagarios de 1873, P. Ramírez and Santiago Campbell.

78. AHGES, carpeton, July 23, 1860, list of articles stolen from the Mina San Pedro.

79. AHGES, carpeton 433, May 13, 1871, Guaymas District, G. Corella.

80. AHGES, carpeton 433, August 18, 1871, captain of artillery to municipal president of San Marcial.

81. AHGES, carpeton 448, December 4, 1873, District of Altar prefect, F. Redondo, to governor.

82. AHGES, carpeton 433, August 14, 1871, Prefect G. Corella to governor.

83. AHGES, carpeton 324, December 19, 1858, prefect of Arizpe to commander of Fronteras.

84. APD, Sección Carbó, legajo 10, caja 27, no. 13050, May 21, 1885, report from the San Diego newspaper The Sun .

85. AHGES, carpeton 365, April 19, 1861, Ventura Angulo to prefect of Guaymas. Angulo demanded 250 pesos as compensation for his crops.

86. "Lamentable Escandalo," La Constitución, November 25, 1880, 3.

87. AHGES, carpeton 422, May 17, 1870, prefect of Hermosillo to governor.

88. AHGES, carpeton 433, March 6, 1871, petition from residents of Magdalena to governor concerning theft of cattle and horses in their border district. The petitioners claimed that the brands of their cattle were being changed and sold in Arizona.

89. AHGES, carpeton 471, July 1, 1879, prefect of district of Altar to governor. A special delegation was commissioned to find a solution to the problem.

90. AHGES, carpeton 596, Municipio de Arizpe to governor regarding the constant theft of cattle.

91. AHGES, tomo 2376, exp. 7, October 31, 1908, Manuel Mascareñas to Governor Luis Torres.

92. AHGES, carpeton 433, March 6, 1871, suplica de los ciudadanos de Magdalena.

93. AHGES, tomo 2376, exp. 7, October 23, 1908, Prefect M. Martínez to secretary of state.

94. AHGES, tomo 2376, exp. 8, May 29, 1908, Dionisio González to governor.

95. AHGES, carpeton 462, February 5, 1875, prefect of Alamos to citizens, regarding registration for the Guardia Nacional. For a view of the Guardia elsewhere in Mexico; see Thomson, "Bulwarks of Patriotic Liberalism," 22:1, 31-68.

96. González Ramírez, "Patronato de la historia de Sonora," 400-401, September 7, 1835, decree number 85, Manuel Escalante y Arvizu y Joaquin V. Elías.

97. AHCES, carpeton 25, exp. 760, Julian Escalante, January 21, 1861, instructions for inscription in Guardia.

98. Annual Report of Commercial Relations (1869), September 30 1868. Consul Alexander Willard reported the military change.

99. AHGES, carpeton 424, February 15, 1870, Rosario Campo, jefe of the Guardia Nacional, to conscripts. The draftees also complained about being trained by army officers who expected them to act as professional soldiers.

100. AHGES, carpeton 365, March 1, 1861, and carpeton 366, July 1, 1861, list of exonerated individuals.

101. AHGES, carpeton 457, September 26, 1877, prefect of Hermosillo to governor. Also see carpeton 990, July 11, 1885, report of municipal authorities of Los Bronces.

102. AHGES, carpeton 457, July 13, 1877, pres. municipal de San Marcial to prefect of Guaymas. Ayuntamiento de San Marcial needs arms to quell public disorder and drunks.

103. AHGES, carpeton 324, November 13, 1858, Santiago García, prefect of Arizpe, to military commander of Fronteras. And see AHGES, carpeton 433, January 15, 1871, statistical reports, Hermosillo.

104. AHGES, carpeton 397, January 21, 1867, report of prefect of Guaymas, Remigio Riviera, to governor. Weapons in the state were obtained from both private merchants and government sources. Private merchants imported arms to Sonora at first from Europe and later from the United States. For ex

ample, the American ship Continental arrived at Guaymas January 21, 1867, with a cargo of 500 Enfield rifles, 500 Springfield rifles, 126 Mr. Storm carbines, 21 sables, 50 Colt revolvers, 25 Remington revolvers, and an assortment of munition belts, 60 barrels of powder, and 11,000 bullets for rifles and 7,500 for pistols.

105. BCUSCN, Colección Pesqueira, Segunda Serie, tomo 4, 1852-1892, Capitan Guillet, Notas sobre Sonora, 1864-1866 (University of Sonora, 1866, manuscript), 15.

106. AHGES, carpeton 324, May 25, 1858, prefect of Arizpe, Santiago García, to governor.

107. AHGES, carpeton 433, August 14, 1871, report of Prefect Guaymas.

108. AHGES, carpeton 457, Hermosillo, January 8, 1877, Francisco Espino, Jefe militar, Proclamation to citizens.

109. AHGES, carpeton 448, December 31, 1872, district prefect of Arizpe to governor.

110. AHGES, carpeton 422, October 31, 1870, prefect of Magdalena to governor. Also see carpeton 433, June 30, 1871, prefect of Magdalena, quarterly report.

111. AHGES, carpeton 457, October 10, 1877, visit of prefect to Altar.

112. AHGES, carpeton 433, February 6, 1871, Prefect P. Ramírez to governor. The towns of San Ignacío, Imuris, and Magdalena requested exemption from the service.

113. AHGES, carpeton 449, November 11, 1873, rancher Jesús Provencio to the local district prefect of Moctezuma.

114. AHGES, carpeton 324, December 19, 1858, prefect of Arizpe to commander of military presidio at Fronteras. The prefect lectured the commander about the problems that the draft and his actions caused to local farmers.

115. AHGES, carpeton 354, October 22, 1860, petition from the town of Baviacora, Arizpe, to Governor Pesqueira. The residents insisted that they were unable to pay the sum the governor had imposed on the town. The petition was signed by over fifty residents.

116. AHGES, carpeton 354, October 14, 1860, petition of the towns people of Baviacora to governor of Sonora.

117. Ibid.

118. See for example AHGES, carpeton 467, February 6, 1875, commercial census of Arizpe. Also carpeton 354, July 1, 1860, "loan" requested of Guaymas merchants by government to fight the Yaqui. Also carpeton 365, February 24, 1861, residents of Guaymas to governor. The Guaymenses opposed the imposition of any new taxes.

119. AHGES, carpeton 324, December 16, 1858, and January 8, 1859, prefect of Arizpe to commander of presidio at Fronteras.

120. AHGES, carpeton 458, March 9, 1874, municipal president of Santa Cruz to prefect of district of Magdalena.

121. Ibid.

122. AHGES, carpeton 324, January 8, 1859, prefect of Arizpe to commander of Fronteras, reported noticing increases in deserters over previous years. Also carpeton 448, April 30, 1873, quarterly report of prefect of Arizpe

to governor. The situation of Arizpe mirrors that occurring in other northern districts.

123. ABO, La Estrella de Occidente, December 24, 1869, 3.

124. AHGES, carpeton 398, December 30, 1869, prefect of Magdalena to municipal presidents of the district.

125. AHGES, carpeton 448, July 2, 1873, correspondence received by governor from American consul in Guaymas, Alexander Willard, regarding case of Frank J. Boisville.

126. APD, Sección Carbó, legajo 10, caja 27, no. 12127, June 24, 1885, Pedro Hinojosa to Carbó.

127. AHGES, carpeton 448, July 22, 1873, Prefect Lucas Llain to secretary of state. After the rape, the men brutally beat the woman.

128. AHGES, carpeton 448, July 17, 1873, Lucas Llain to secretary of state.

129. AHGES, carpeton 422, April 30, 1870, prefect of Hermosillo to governor. Francisco Gutiérrez murdered Anastasio Vega after the race. None of the participants attempted to apprehend Gutiérrez because they were disarmed.

130. AHGES, ''Problemas con armas," La Gaceta de Cananea, August 7, 1910.

131. AHGES, carpeton 471, decree to citizens, law passed March 23, 1872, prohibiting weapons in town. Also AHGES, carpeton 468, July 17, 1875, laws governing the use of arms.

132. AHGES, carpeton 471, May 15, 1876, José María Rangel, Colonel 15 Batallon de Linea y Comandante Militar del Distrito, Guaymas.

133. AHGES, carpeton 812, 813, and 814, Ramo Justicia, 1892-1893-1894. Contains several cases of "attempted escapes." Also AHGES, carpeton 831, January 23, 1893, January 26, 1893, Ramo Justicia, municipal president of Arizpe, to prefect.

134. León-Portilla, "The Norteño Variant," 105.

135. See, for example, Rafael Izábal staged invasion of Tiburon, "En la isla de Tiburon," Mundo Ilustrado, México, February 19, 1905, 21:8.