Loyola's Acts "nsd0e1887"

Two The Ascetic

1. Donald Weinstein and Rudolph M. Bell, Saints and Society: The Two Worlds of Western Christendom, 1000-1700 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 18.

2. Acta 2.1.

3. See Francis Rapp, "Les pèlerinages dans la vie religieuse de l'Occident medieval au XIVe et XVe siècles," in Freddy Raphaël et al., Les pèlerinages de l'antiquité biblique et classique à l'occident médiévale (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1973), 130-31; Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 123-28.

4. Lull, Libre de contemplació 110-22, cited in J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish Kingdoms , 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976-78), 1:46; Sumption, Pilgrimage , 122-25.

5. Baldassare Castiglione, Lettere , 1:7, cited by J. R. Hale, "Castiglione's Military Career," in Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture , ed. Robert W. Hanning and David Rosand (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983), 148-49.

6. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II , trans. Siân Reynolds, 2 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 1:284-85.

7. Montaigne, Essais 1.48. According to Las siete partidas of Alfonso X, knights were to ride only horses, not mules. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:49. Disdain is also reflected in the conciliar decree that the concubines of the clergy were to be buried in the pits used for dead mules.

8. Erasmus, Parabolae sive similia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-5:286; "Parallels," trans. R. A. B. Mynors, in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), 23:252. For the ass as a symbol of sloth see Samuel Chew, The Pilgrimage of Life (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962), 100-2, 204.

9. Acta 2.1.

10. William A. Christian, Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 124-25, 94-95; idem, Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaissance Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 13-14.

11. La más antigua historia de Aranzazu (1648) 2.1.58; 2.5.76. The first

miracle through intercession of the image typically brought rain, 2.5.60. The discovery is dated at 2.1.58 as 1469 or 1470, coincident with the papal approval of the liturgy of the Virgin immaculate. There was a Franciscan convent on the site since 1514, 2.1.3-4. Since 1918 the Madonna of Aránzau has been patronness of the province of Guizpúcoa, with 9 September as her feast. Luis-Pedro Peña Santiago, Las ermitas de Guizpúcoa (San Sebastian: Txertoa, n.d.), 50; idem, Fiestas tradicionales y romerías de Guipúzcoa (ibid., 1973), 53-55.

12. See John Demaray, The Invention of Dante's "Commedia" (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), 155. Anthropologists who have studied the cult have not made this association, but it is the probable reason why the statues are found in brambles (in Mexico, in cactuses).

13. See, without reference to Aránzazu, Christian, Apparitions , 16-20, 208-9. Since his data is confined to Castile and Catalonia, the application to Aránzazu is mine. For the medieval legends known as the shepherd's cycle see also Victor Turner and Edith Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 41-42.

14. Turner and Turner, Image and Pilgrimage .

15. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1. There is a statue of her at Uribarri in a roadside shrine on the route of ascent to the greater shrine at Aránzazu, although the documentation does not indicate its date. Gerardo López de Guereñu, Devoción popular en España a la Virgen blanca y a nuestra Señora de las nieves (Vitoria: Obra cultural de la caja de ahorros municipal de la ciudad de Vitoria, 1967), 201 with photograph.

16. For Espinosa de los Monteros in general see Jose Luis García Grinda, Burgos edificado (Madrid: Colegio oficial de arquitectos de Madrid, 1984), 217-21; Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos: Guía completa de las tierras del Cid , 2d ed. (Burgos: Diputación provincial, 1973), 156-59.

17. See Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:122.

18. Susan Tax Freeman, The Pasiegos: Spaniards in No Man's Land (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 6, 10-11, 17.

19. Ignacio Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares del norte de Burgos (Villarcayo: Garcia, 1988), 13; Carlos Blanco, Las fiestas de aquí (Valladolid: Ambibo, 1983), 95-97.

20. Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 18; and for the maypole as a custom associated throughout Spain with various summer--usually August--festivals see Jose Luis Alonso Pongo, Tradiciones y costumbres de Castilla y Leon , Collection nueva Castilla, 3 (Valladolid: Castilla, 1982), 53-65; Julio Caro Baroja, El estio festivo: Fiestas populares del verano , Otra historia de España, 10 (Madrid: Taurus, 1984), 24-27.

21. Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 19; Blanco, Fiestas de aquí , 95-97.

22. "From Rioseco to Trueba, from La Sía to Lunada all call on you." Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 21. Rioseco and Trueba are two of the rivers that converge at Las Machorras; Lunada is about 6 kilometers north; but La Sía does not appear on the official map or in the gazeteer consulted. Rioseco is also a town between Burgos and Espinosa de los Monteros, and there

is also a town of Trueba near the site. Trueba, Lunada, and La Sía are also mountainous elevations, according to Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos , 159.

23. The couplets are cited in Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 20-22, but the interpretation of them is mine.

24. Stephen F. Ostrow, ''The Sistine Chapel at S. Maria Maggiore: Sixtus V and the Art of the Counter Reformation," Ph.D. diss,, Princeton University, 1987, 1-5, 27, 12; idem, Art and Spirituality in Counter-Reformation Rome: The Sistine and Pauline Chapels in S. Maria Maggiore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 3; Mariano Armellini, Le chiese di Roma del secolo IV al XIX , 2 vols. (Rome: Nicola Ruffolo, 1942), 1:281-94.

25. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , prologue by Placido Inchaurraga; and for sites in Guizpúcoa, 55, 86, 118, 130, and 201 (most with photographs).

26. Angel Dotor y Municio, La catedral de Burgos: Guía histórico-descriptiva (Burgos: Hijos de Santiago Rodríguez, 1928), 254-55. Main retable, Nuestra Señora la Mayor, silver statue, 15th century, cathedral, Burgos. Reproduced ibid., fig. 47, and Luciano Huidobro, La catedral de Burgos , Los monumentos cardinales de España, 8 (Madrid: Plus-Ultra, 1958), 138.

25. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , prologue by Placido Inchaurraga; and for sites in Guizpúcoa, 55, 86, 118, 130, and 201 (most with photographs).

27. See Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos: Remansos de historia y arte (Burgos: Caja de ahorras municipal, 1987), 53, without reference to Loyola and Gonçalves dâ Camara.

28. See Levi d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception 72; Edward Dennis O'Connor, The Dogma of the Immaculate Conception: History and Significance (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1958), 242, noting that the Society of Jesus in its fifth general council of 1593 officially adopted this belief. See also Susanne L. Stratton, The Immaculate Conception in Spanish Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 1-66, with the Virgin with the sun at 46-58; Nancy Mayberry, "The Controversy over the Immaculate Conception in Medieval and Renaissance Art, Literature, and Society," Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 21 (1991): 207-24.

29. One of the most frequent representations of the Virgin immaculate with the child Jesus is in the guise of the apocalyptic woman, with the earliest examples dating from the fourteenth century. See Levi d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception , 56, 20-28, and for an example of the apocalyptic woman and the Madonna with playing child combined as the Virgin immaculate, see Virgin immaculate standing, German woodcut, after 1477, fig. 7. For the type of the Virgin in the burning bush, whose virginity burns without consumption, see 67-69; and for the Spanish oral tradition, Christian, Apparitions , 26-57 passim.

30. Sixten Ringbom, Icon to Narrative: The Rise of the Dramatic Close-up in Fifteenth-Century Devotional Painting (Åbo: Åbo Akademie, 1965), 165 and fig. 3. See also Francesco della Rovere (Pope Sixtus IV), L'orazione della Immacolata .

31. Photograph in Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 25, which notes that Isabella II donated for it a golden mantle, now lost, 13. The original statue was destroyed in 1936 during the Civil War. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , 106.

32. Glykophilousia (Vzygranye), a variant of Eleousa, in which the infant

on arm reaches up toward the Virgin's face to touch her chin or cheek. The earliest example in the West is Madonna, Tuscan School, late 13th century, Gualino Collection (formerly), Turin. See Victor Lasareff, "Studies in the Iconography of the Virgin," Art Bulletin 20 (1938):42-46; 40, fig. 18. The fresco in S. Maria di Monserrato, Rome, is also of the type of the Virgin with playing child. Fresco, first half of 16th century, sacristy, S. Maria di Monserrato, Rome. Reproduced in Armellini, Chiese di Roma , 1:507.

33. d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception , 20-28, 56; and for the convergence of the images see also Stratton, Immaculate Conception in Spanish Art , 58.

34. Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 20-22.

35. These ancient dances are the ahorcado , the pasacalle , and the caracol , for which the authority is Justo del Río Velasco, Danzas típicas burgalesas: Tradiciones y costumbres , 2d ed. (Burgos: n.p., 1975). See also Caro Baroja, Estio festivo , 103, 110-15; Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 18-19, with illustration of the ahorcado at Espinosa de los Monteros, 19; Blanco, Fiestas de aquí, 95; Canciones y danzas de España (Madrid: Magerit, 1956), with an illustration of the paleoteo , n.p.; Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos: Guía , 160.

36. Acta 3.31.

37. See Juan Ignacio de Iztueta, Viejas danzas de Guipúzcoal Gipuzkoa'ko dantza gogoangarriak , 2d ed. (Bilbao: Gran eciclopedia vasca, 1968), 222-27. It is still conserved in Tolosa, the ancient capital, according to Caro Baroja, Los Vascos , 2 vols. (San Sebastian: Larrun, 1982), 2:405.

38. Acta 1.3.

39. d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception , 57, 60.

40. See Anna Ivanova, The Dancing Spaniards (London: John Baker, 1970), 65-71, 61.

41. Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro, Trattato dell'arte del ballo , ed. F. Zambrini (Bologna, 1873), p. 7, cited by Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 60.

42. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

43. Raphaël, "Pèlerinage: Approche sociologique," in idem, Pèlerinages , 14.

44. See Fernando Zapico and de Dalmases, eds., Acta , pp. 380-81 n. 2.

45. See Christian, Apparitions , 14, although his study is of public phenomena such as vows to spare the populace some disaster.

46. Acta 2.13.

47. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , 130.

48. Acta 2.13.

49. See Christian, Apparitions , 203-24, 205.

50. For wool see J. H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716 (New York: New American Library, 1977), 21-22, 108-10; and for sheep raising, Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:8. In particular see Manuel Riu, "Woolen Industry in Catalonia in the Later Middle Ages," trans. Roger M. Walker, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson , ed. N. B. Harte and K. G. Ponting, Passold Studies in Textile History,

2 (London: Heinemann Educational Books, Passold Research Fund, 1983), 205-29.

51. David E. Vassberg, Land and Society in Golden-Age Castile (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 91-92; Riu, "Woolen Industry," 211-12; Carla Rahn Phillips, "Spanish Merchants and the Wool Trade in the Sixteenth Century," Sixteenth Century Journal 14 (1983):259-82.

52. The inclusion of this devotional detail in the recital of the 1550s also reinforces the Catholic cult of images against Protestant polemic. For this issue see Giuseppe Scavizzi, "La teologia cattolica e le immagini durante il XVI secolo," Storia dell'arte 21 (1974):171-213.

53. Acta 2.13.

54. Romain Roussel, Les pèlerinages à travers les siècles (Paris: Payot, 1954), 33; Rapp, "Pèlerinages dans la vie religieuse," 130-31.

55. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 177, 182.

56. Acta 2.14.

57. See Bartolomé Bennassar, The Spanish Character: Attitudes and Mentalities from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979), 77.

58. Acta 2.14-15.

59. Heath Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest: Women in Castilian Town Society, 1100-1300 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 168-92. For the legal background see in general Rafael Serra Ruiz, Honor, honra, e injuria en el derecho medieval español , Anales de la Universidad de Murcia, derecho 23 (Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 1969).

60. Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 10 (1971):18, 21-22.

61. Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 25, 36, 42, 45.

62. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame: A Historical Account of Several Conflicts," in ibid., 91.

63. Ibid., 90-91.

61. Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 25, 36, 42, 45.

62. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame: A Historical Account of Several Conflicts," in ibid., 91.

63. Ibid., 90-91.

61. Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 25, 36, 42, 45.

62. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame: A Historical Account of Several Conflicts," in ibid., 91.

63. Ibid., 90-91.

64. Acta 2.15.

65. Louis Cardillac, Morisques et chrétiens: Un affrontement polémique (1492-1640) (Paris: Klincksieck, 1977), 268-79.

66. See Anwar G. Chejne, Islam and the West: A Cultural and Social History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), vii, 2, 7, 8, 18, 180 n. 1. For Moriscos see also A. W. Lovett, Early Habsburg Spain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 257-76; and for the expulsion, Norman Roth, "The Jews of Spain and the Expulsion of 1492," Historian 55 (1992):17-30.

67. Acta 9.100.

68. See Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 129-31.

69. See Pope Paul IV, "Cum quorumdam hominum," in Enchiridion , ed. Denzinger, no. 1880.

70. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 84, 100-1, 104.

71. Lope García de Salazar, Las bienandanzas e fortunas 4.20, 22. For the

system of lineage see Caro Baroja, "Linajes y bandos," in idem, Vasconiana: (De historia y etnología) (Madrid: Minotauro, 1957), 15-61.

72. Acta 2.15-16.

73. Albert A. Sicroff, Los estatutos de limpieza de sangre: Controversias entre los siglos XV and XVII , trans. Mauro Armiño, La otra historia de España, 5, rev. ed. (Madrid: Taurus, 1985), 315-36.

74. Constitutiones 2.3.44.

75. Petrus Alfornsi, Disciplina clericalis 17, 18; The "Disciplina clericalis" of Petrus Alfonsi , trans. P. R. Quarrie from Eberhard Hermes (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1970), 135, 136. Cf. Climente Sanchez, Libro de enxemplos 362, 363, cited by John Esten Keller, Motif-Index of Mediaeval Spanish Literature (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949), J21.5.

76. Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 36. Fortune at her Wheel, George Pencz, woodcut, 16th century, reproduced, fig. 52; Hans Burgkmair in Petrarch, De remediis utriusque fortunae , Augsburg, 1532, fig. 53.

77. See, without reference to Loyola, Wolfgang Harms, Homo viator in bivio: Studien zur Bildlichkeit des Weges , Medium aevum, philologische Studien, 21 (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1970), 221-49.

78. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival 224.19; 452.5-10. D. H. Green, Irony in the Medieval Romance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 152-60.

79. Marion E. Gibbs, "Wrong Paths in Parzival ," Modern Language Review 63 (1968):875.

80. Green, "Homicide and Parzival ," in Approaches to Wolfram von Eschenbach: Five Essays , ed. idem and Leslie Peter Johnson, Mikrokosmos, Beiträge zur Literaturwissenschaft und Bedeutungsforschung, 5 (Bern: Peter Lang, 1978), 33-34.

81. Acta 2.16-17. For the site see Anselm M. Albareda, Historia de Montserrat , rev. ed. (Montserrat: Abadía de Montserrat, 1974).

82. Bartolomé Bermejo, Virgin and Child in a Landscape (Virgin of Montserrat), central panel, c. 1482-83, cathedral, sacristy, Acqui Terme, Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 39, and detail, pl. 40; José Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , vol. 9 of "Ars hispaniae": Historia universal del arte hispánico , 22 vols. (Madrid: Plus-Ultra, 1947-77), 270, fig. 230.

83. Acta 2.17.

84. Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 1128-1130; The Book of True Love , trans. Anthony N. Zahareas and Saralynn R. Daly (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978), 291.

85. T. C. Price Zimmerman, "Confession and Autobiography in the Early Renaissance," in Renaissance Studies in Honor of Hans Baron , ed. Anthony Molho and John A. Tedeschi (Florence: G. C. Sansoni, 1971), 124, referring to Jacopo Passavanti, Lo specchio di vera pentienza , p. 128. Zimmerman's identification of the penitentials as the matrix of early renaissance autobiography at 126 is exceedingly restrictive.

86. Sanchez de Vercial, Libro de los examplos 1, cited in Keller, Motif-Index, V21.6.

87. See Richard Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls: Fourteenth-Century Saints and Their Religious Milieu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 125-26.

88. Johann Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought, and Art in France and the Netherlands in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (London: Edward Arnold, 1924), 168.

89. Acta 2.17-18.

90. See Andreas Wang, Der "miles christianus" im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert und seine mittelalterliche Tradition: Ein Beitrag zum Verhaltnis von sprachlicher und graphischer Bildlichkeit , Mikrokosmos: Beiträge zur Literaturwissenschaft und Bedeutungsforschung, 1 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975), 39-104; Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 140-43; Françoise Joukovsky, La gloire dans la poésie française et néolatine du XVIe siècle (Des rhétoriquers à Agrippa d'Aubigné) , Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, 102 (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 386-87.

91. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 7253-8199, cited by Susan K. Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance: A Study of the Pilgrimage of the Life of Man as a Medieval Treatise on Seeing and Remembering (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 77-81. See also Pelerinage de la vida humana , pp. 140; 157, figs. 5, 6.

92. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 100, 112, 111, 112, 109. For a knight placing his armor on Mary's altar and becoming a spiritual, rather than temporal, warrior see Caesarius of Heisterbach, Dialogus miraculorum 1.37.

93. Acta 2.18.

94. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 236.

95. For the term caballero see Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:63-65; Helen Nader, The Mendoza Family in the Spanish Renaissance, 1350 to 1550 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1979), 36-37, 103.

96. Montaigne, Essais 2.17, p. 633; The Complete Works of Montaigne , trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford, Calif.: Standford University Press, 1967), 479.

97. Acta 2.18.

98. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 84.

99. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

100. Layman donating his garment to a poor man, Oxford, Bible moralisée , fol. 56. Reproduced in François Garnier, Le language de l'image au moyen âge , 2 vols. (Paris: Léopard d'or, 1982), 2:257, no. 360, and see p. 253.

101. See Adolf Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Mediaeval Art: From Early Christian Times to the Thirteenth Century (London: Warburg Institute, 1939), 12-13.

102. E.g. Stefano di Giovanni, called Sassetta, St. Francis Giving His Cloak to a Poor Soldier, panel, 1437-38, National Gallery, London. Reproduced in Jill Dunkerton, Susan Foister, Dillian Gordon, and Nicholas Penny, Giotto to Dürer: Early Renaissance Painting in the National Gallery (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press with National Gallery Publications, London, 1991), pl. 19.

103. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 172-73.

104. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 157.

105. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:8.

106. The locus classicus is Jerome, Contra Vigilantium 15. For a survey of the ascetic practice of weeping for sin see Sandra McEntire, "The Doctrine of Compunction from Bede to Margery Kempe," in The Medieval Mystical Tradition in England , Exeter Symposium 4, Papers Read at Dartington Hall, July 1987, ed. Marion Glasscoe (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1987), 77-90.

107. Huizinga, Waning of the Middle Ages , 173-74; Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 15, 182.

108. Moshe Barasch, "The Crying Face," Artibus et historiae 15 (1987):21-36; rpt. in idem, "Imago hominis": Studies in the Language of Art (Vienna: IRSA, 1991), 85-99.

109. For a survey see Sheila Page Bayne, Tears and Weeping: An Aspect of Emotional Climate Reflected in Seventeenth-Century French Literature (Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1981), 22-76; Anne Vincent-Buffault, Histoire des larmes (Paris: Rivages, 1984). For emotion as a historical phenomenon see Lucien Febvre, "La sensibilité et l'histoire: Comment reconstituer la vie affective d'autrefois?" Annales d'histoire sociale 3 (1941):5-20.

110. Hélène Monsacre, Les larmes d'Achille: Le héros, la femme, et la souffrance dans la poesié d'Homère (Paris: Albin Michel, 1984).

111. Ramsay MacMullen, "Romans in Tears," Classical Philology 75 (1980): 254-55.

112. L. Beszard, "Les larmes dans l'épopée, particulièrement dans l'épopée française jusqu'à la fin du XIIe siècle," Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 27 (1903): 385-413, 513-49, 641-74; Heinz Gerd Wienand, Tränen: Untersuchungen über das Weinen in der deutschen Sprache und Literatur des Mittelalters , Abhandlungen zum Kunst-, Musik-, und Literaturwissenschaft, 5 (Bonn: Bouvier, 1958).

113. Acta 2.8, 10.

114. Christian, Apparitions , 199-201.

115. Acta 3.19.

116. Acta 2.18.

117. Augustine, Confessiones 10.38.63; Confessions , trans. Vernon J. Bourke (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953), 319.

118. Acta 3.32.

119. Vita Danieli , p. 563, cited by Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints (London: SCM, 1981), 68.

120. Acta 3.19.

121. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 101.

122. See Timothy Husband with Gloria Gilmore-House, The Wild Man: Medieval Myth and Symbolism (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980), 1-3, 7, 8-10, 12, 94-109. For a Catalan example see Bermejo, Saint Onuphrius, from the predella of the Santa Engracia retable, c. 1474-77, Colegiata, Museo Parroquial, Daroca. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pl. 33. For the wild man in literature see Penelope B. R. Doob, Nebuchadnezzar's Children: Conventions of Madness in Middle English Literature (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), 134-207; for Spanish examples, Oleh Ma-

zur, The Wild Man in the Spanish Renaissance and Golden-Age Theater: A Comparative Study including the "Indio," the "Bárbaro," and Their Counterparts in European Lores (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms for Villanova University, 1980); Stanley L. Robe, "Wild Men and Spain's Brave New World," in The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thought from the Renaissance to Romanticism , ed. Edward Dudley and Maximillian E. Novak (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973), 39-53; Alan Deyermond, ''El hombre salvaje en la novela sentimental," Filología 10 (1964):97-111. For Hercules' attribute see Beth Cohen, "From Bowman to Clubman: Herakles and Olympia," Art Bulletin 76 (1994):695-715.

123. Felix Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:65; Sumption, Pilgrimage , 172.

124. Erasmus, De civilitate 1, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1035; "On Good Manners for Boys," trans. Brian McGregor in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978) 25:277.

125. Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process , trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Urizen, 1978), 1:88, 69.

126. Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 306.

127. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame , 25; and for crowns and hats in association with glory, Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 375-80. See also Paul-Henri Stahl, Histoire de la décapitation (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1986); Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr., Pictures and Punishment: Art and Criminal Prosecution during the Florentine Renaissance (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), 128-29, 135, 65; Laurie Schneider, "Donatello and Caravaggio: The Iconography of Decapitation," American Imago 33 (1976):84-91.

128. For hats in the tub see A Bathing and Pleasure Palace, Valerius Maximus, Master of the Housebook, late 15th century, Galeria medievalia, London. Reproduced in Christine de Pizan, A Medieval Woman's Mirror of Honor: The Treasury of the City of Ladies , trans. Charity Cannon Willard (New York: Persea, 1989), 65, pl. 20. For hats in hell see Edgerton, Pictures and Punishment , 65 n. 23.

129. Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in Sixteenth-Century France (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1987), 38.

130. Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest , 174-75. For the iconography of touching another person's hair see Garnier, Langage de l'image au moyen âge , 2:73-74.

131. Acta 5.51-53.

132. Robert J. Clements, The Poetry of Michelangelo (New York: New York University Press, 1965), 13.

133. Acta 9.89.

134. Jacques Roussiaud, Medieval Prostitution , trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (New York: Blackwell, 1988), 154.

135. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 87.

136. Petrarch, Epistolae familiares 10.3; Letters on Familiar Matters: Rerum familiarum libri IX-XVI , trans. Aldo S. Bernardo (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 60, 59, citing Seneca, Ad Lucilium 94.70. For the

clerical critique of the effeminacy of males at court wearing their hair long and curly see C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 180. For the Spanish fashion see Ruth Matilda Anderson, Hispanic Costume, 1480-1530 (New York: Hispanic Society of America, 1979), 33-34.

137. Marcia L. Colish, The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle ages , Studies in the History of Christian Thought, 24-25, 2 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985), 1:48; 2:211, citing Augustine, De opere monchorum 31.39-33.41; idem, "Cosmetic Theology: The Transformation of a Stoic Theme," Assays: Critical Approaches to Medieval and Renaissance Texts 1 (1981): 5, 7-12. For Stoic cosmetology and hair see also Maud W. Gleason, "The Semiotics of Gender: Physiognomy and Self-Fashioning in the Second Century C.E.," in Before Sexuality: The Construction of Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek World , ed. David M. Halperin, John J. Winkler, and Froma I. Zeitlin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 399-402. See also in general Gábor Klaniczay, "Fashionable Beards and Heretic Rags,'' in idem, The Uses of Supernatural Power: The Transformation of Popular Religion in Medieval and Early-Modern Europe , ed. Karen Margolis, trans. Susan Singerman (London: Polity, 1990), 51-78.

138. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.137.

139. Acta 3.29.

140. Constitutiones 1.2.10; 1.3.15.

141. See Jan Zialkowski, "Avatars of Ugliness in Medieval Literature," Modern Language Review 79 (1984):1-20.

142. Acta 3.34. For male dress see Anderson, Hispanic Costume , 35-79.

143. Erasmus, De civilitate 1, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1036.

144. Anne Hollander, Seeing Through Clothes (New York: Viking, 1978), xiv-xv. For an introduction to the period see Madeleine Lazard, "Le corps vêtu: Signification du costume à la Renaissance," in Le corps à la renaissance , Actes du XXXe colloque de Tours, 1987, ed. Jean Céard, Marie Madeleine Fontaine, and Jean-Claude Margolin (Paris: Aux amateurs de livres, 1990), 77-94.

145. Hollander, Seeing Through Clothes , 2-3, 15-16, 23, 51-52.

146. Acta 2.16, 18.

147. See Roussel, Pèlerinages , 30.

148. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 171-72.

149. Elizabeth Birbari, Dress in Italian Painting, 1460-1500 (London: John Murray, 1975), 32-34, 30; and for the doublet, which was worn with hose, 43-47.

150. Castiglione, Libro del cortegiano 2.27.

151. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 87.

152. Georges Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness: Changing Attitudes in France since the Middle Ages , trans. Jean Birrell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 52.

153. Erasmus, De civilitate 2, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1037.

154. See Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:139; 2:48-49.

155. Domenico Cavalca, Mirall de la creu 19, reporting the opinion of Greg-

ory the Great; Brunetto Latini, Il tesoretto 2608-15. For the endurance of this topic in the 1550s see Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 69 n. 184.

156. José Sanchez Herrero, "Los cuidados de la belleza corporal femenina en los confesionales y tratados de doctrina cristiana de los siglos XIII al XVI," in Les soins de beauté: Moyen age, début des temps modernes , Actes du IIIe colloque international Grasse, 26-28 avril 1985, ed. Denis Menjot (Nice: Université de Nice, 1987), 286.

157. Aileen Ribeiro, Dress and Morality (London: Batsford, 1986), 45, 60, 62, 65, 69; Jacqueline Herald, Renaissance Dress in Italy, 1400-1500 , History of Dress, 2 (New Jersey: Humanities, 1981), 53, 61, 211. For caps see ibid., 55; Irena Turneau, "The Diffusion of Knitting in Medieval Europe," trans. Maria Starowieyska in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe , 389.

158. Acta 10.97.

159. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 81.

160. Acta 3.19.

161. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 154.

162. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:35.

163. Acta 3.25, 27.

164. Dante, Purgatorio 9.13-18.

165. Acta 3.26

166. Palladius, Lausiac History 18.3; 2.2-3; 19.8; 38.11; 43.1; 48.2; 57.2. For the late medieval examples see Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 26, 37, 144, 94, 95.

167. Acta 3.22.

168. Acta 3.23.

169. Sanchez, Libro des los exenplos 114, cited by Keller, Motif-Index , B563.4.1. For the friendship of holy men with animals see Clarence J. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), 310-11.

170. Jacob de Voragine, Legenda aurea 108. The iconography includes the vision by Dominic's pregnant mother of a dog with a torch and star. I. Frank, in Ikonographie der cristlichen Kunst , ed. Engelbert Kirschbaum, 8 vols. (Rome: Herder, 1968-76), 6:76; and see the reproduction of the detail of Francesco Triani, polyptych, Church of St. Catherine, Pisa, in Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 22, fig. 2.

171. See Penn R. Szittya, The Antifraternal Tradition in Medieval Literature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), esp. 60, 119.

172. Acta 3.23-24.

173. For the Dominican convent of St. Peter Martyr in Manresa see Cayetano Barraquer y Roviralta, Las casas de religiosos en Cataluña durante el primer tercio del siglo XIX , 2 vols. (Barcelona: Francisco J. Altés y Alabart, 1906), 2:59-62.

174. Augustine, Confessiones 9.4.9-10; trans. Bourke, 238. Cf. for the metaphor Enarratio in psalmos 4.6.

175. Acta 6.55. The philology is mine. The earliest occurence of aguja given in the historical Castilian dictionary is with reference to Pascual de Gayangos's

edition of La gran conquista de ultramar . The critical edition of Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, MS 1187, with a concordance, by Franklin M. Wallman and Louis Cooper has monte agudo , fol. 315r39 and mont agudo , fol. 322v13. The editors remark that Gayangos's edition is very corrupt with modernizations. The noun agujero does not appear in Antonio de Nebrija's Vocabulario de romance en latín .

176. Giles Constable, Attitudes Toward Self-Inflicted Suffering in the Middle Ages , Stephen J. Brademas, Sr., Lecture, 9 (Brookline, Mass.: Hellenic College, 1982), 8-10.

177. Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 120.

178. Palladius, Lausiac History 38.8; 28; 58.5; The Lausiac History , trans. Robert T. Meyer, Ancient Christian Writers, 34 (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1965), 112, 88, 140.

179. Ibid., 25; proem. 6; cf. praef. 14; trans. Meyer, 19. The proemium is only in some manuscripts and not in those of the best tradition, 167 n. 1.

178. Palladius, Lausiac History 38.8; 28; 58.5; The Lausiac History , trans. Robert T. Meyer, Ancient Christian Writers, 34 (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1965), 112, 88, 140.

179. Ibid., 25; proem. 6; cf. praef. 14; trans. Meyer, 19. The proemium is only in some manuscripts and not in those of the best tradition, 167 n. 1.

180. See William J. Bouwsma, "Anxiety and the Formation of Early Modern Culture," in idem, A Usable Past: Essays in European Cultural History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 157-89.

181. See Siegfried Wenzel, The Sin of Sloth: Acedia in Medieval Thought and Literature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960); Reinhard Kuhn, The Demon of Noontide: Ennui in Western Literature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 3-98, 373-76; Roger Caillois, "Les démons de midi," Revue de l'histoire des religions 115 (1937):142-73; 116 (1937):54-83, 143-86; Stanford M. Lyman, The Seven Deadly Sins: Society and Evil (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978), 5-18. For its Spanish manifestation see Teresa Scott Soufas, Melancholy and the Secular Mind in Spanish Golden-Age Literature (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990), 1-63.

182. Ibid.

183. See Wenzel, Sin of Sloth , 5, 21-22, 28, 32, 37, passim.

184. Barasch, Gestures of Despair in Medieval and Early Renaissance Art (New York: New York University Press, 1976), with my correction of his designation of prostration as a gesture of despair, 17. Although Barasch did not locate the source for the gesture of biting the hand, see the next note.

185. Elder Seneca, Controversiae 3.7. See Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 8.2.20; 8.5.23; cf. Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.877-78; Apuleius, Metamorphoses 8.27.

186. Book of Margery Kempe 1.1.

187. Acta 1.2.

188. Barasch, Gestures of Despair , 42, citing Prudentius, Psychomachia 145-54.

189. Garnier, Langage de l'image au moyen âge , 2:278-82.

190. See Ian Donaldson, The Rapes of Lucretia: A Myth and Its Transformations (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982); for artistic examples, H. Diane Russell with Bernadine Barnes, Eva/Ave: Woman in Renaissance and Baroque Prints (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art with the Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1990), 40-48. For recent studies of one artist's rendition see Patricia Emison, "The Singularity of Raphael's Lucretia," Art History

14 (1991): 372-96; Julien Stock, "A Drawing by Raphael of Lucretia," Burlington Magazine 126 (1984):423-24.

191. Mary D. Garrard, Artemisia Gentileschi: The Image of the Female Hero in Italian Baroque Art (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989), 212-14.

192. Albrecht Altdorfer, Pyramus and Thisbe, woodcut, 1513, National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Reproduced in Russell with Barnes, Eva/Ave , 188.

193. Leonardo da Vinci, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS 2038, fol. 29b, in Literary Works , 1:342.

194. Michael Camille, The Gothic Idol: Idolatry and Image-making in Medieval Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 5-7.

195. Garnier, Language de l'image au moyen âge , 1:120-23. Orguel Ocozias face to humility in friar Laurent, Somme le roi , Bibliothèque Mazarine, 13th century, MS 870, fol. 89v. Reproduced 123, figs. A and B. Also, Fall of Ochozias, initial from Second Book of Kings, Bible de saint-Bénigne, 12th century, Dijon, Bibliothèque municipale, MS 2, fol. 135v; Initial from Second Book of Kings, Bible, 13th century, Laon, Bibliothèque municipale, MS 472. Fall of Paul on road to Damascus, reproduced figs. C and D.

196. Camille, Gothic Idol , 5-7.

197. Edgerton, Pictures and Punishment , 87-88.

198. Evagrius Ponticus, Logos praktikos 14.

199. Donald R. Howard, The Three Temptations: Medieval Man in Search of the World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 43-51, referring to Gregory the Great, Homiliae in evangelia 1.16; incorrectly to Peter Lombard, but see Sententiae 2.21.5; Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae 3.41.4; Augustine, Confessiones 10.36-40.

200. Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermone de conversione 14.5; "Lenten Sermons on the Psalm 'He Who Dwells,'" trans. Marie-Bernard Saïd, in Sermons on Conversion , Cistercian Fathers, 25 (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1981), 234.

201. Domenico Cavalca, Mirall de la creu 16.

202. See Howard, Three Temptations , 55-56, and 72 for a typical renaissance treatment in Coluccio Salutati, De seculo et religione 1.8; 21, 20; 2.3, 15.

203. See Howard, Three Temptations , 75.

204. Acta 2.24.

205. Aristotle, Metaphysica 1008b.

206. Acta 3.24-25.

207. Ibid. 3.20, 21, 25.

206. Acta 3.24-25.

207. Ibid. 3.20, 21, 25.

208. Frances A. Yates, The Art of Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 1-7.

209. Acta 3.27.

210. Ibid. 3.28.

209. Acta 3.27.

210. Ibid. 3.28.

211. See Ringbom, "Devotional Images and Imaginative Devotions: Notes on the Place of Art in Late Medieval Private Piety," Gazette des beaux arts 6-73 (1969):159-70.

212. Reproduced in Joseph M. Gasol, Manresa: Panorama d'una ciutat

(Manresa: Montañà, 1971), 102, fig. 101; José María Mas y Casa, Ensayos-históricos sobre Manresa , 2d ed. (Manresa, 1882), 335.

213. See M. Soler I March, "Les fréres Serra," in M. M. Duran I Sanpere et al., La peinture catalane à la fin du moyen âge (Université de Paris, Institut d'art et d'archéologie, bibliothèque d'art catalan, Fondation Cambrò; Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1933), 33-36. For reproduction see Pere Serra, detail of retable, Seo, Manresa, Art de la Catalagne , pl. CLX, 248; Gasol, Manresa , 41; José Gudiol Ricart, Ars hispaniae , vol. 9, Pintura gótica (Madrid: Plus-Ultra, 1955), 76, fig. 50. For Catalan retables in general see Judith Berg Sobré, Behind the Altar Table: The Development of the Painted Retable in Spain, 1350-1500 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1989), 77-93.

214. Chandler Rafthon Post, A History of Spanish Painting , 14 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930-66), 8-1:79.

215. See Benjamin Rowland, Jr., "Gabriel Guardia: A Fifteenth-Century Painter of Manresa," Art Bulletin 14 (1932):242-57. Gabriel Guardia, retable of the Trinity (reconstruction), Colegiata, Manresa. Reproduced in ibid., fig. 1, 242. See also fig. 2, Moses and the Burning Bush and the Baptism of Christ; fig. 3, the Creation of Eve; fig. 4, detail of the Madonna; fig. 15, Abraham and the Three Angels. For his discovery of the retable see 243. Also reproduced in idem, Jaume Huguet: A Study in Late Gothic Painting in Catalonia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932), fig. 60; and details, fig. 61. Reproduced in color in Gasol, Manresa , 41, and reported as still awaiting restoration and reinstallation, 43.

214. Chandler Rafthon Post, A History of Spanish Painting , 14 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930-66), 8-1:79.

216. See G. Karl Galinsky, The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Basil Black-well, 1971), 64-68.

217. Wolfgang Harms, Homo viator in bivio: Studien zur Bildlichkeit des Weges , Medium aevum, philologischen Studien, 21 (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1970), 57-98. Y-Form Crucifix as vegetation, miniature, codex from southeast Germany, c. 1230, pl. 9.

218. Catalan crucifixes usually portrayed the head as frontal and erect, but when inclined, to the left. See Manuel Trens, Les majestats catalanes , Monumenta cataloniae, 13 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1966); and for the twelfth-century crucifix now in the museum of the Seo see Gasol, Manresa , 26, fig. 20; 101, fig. 100.

219. Erasmus, "Concio, sive Medardus," in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:655.

220. Evagrius Ponticus, Six Centuries 1.75; 3; passim.

221. Maurice Vloberg, La Vierge notre médiatrice , Art et paysages, 10 (Grenoble: B. Arthaud, 1936), 182-89.

222. Perugino, Donation of the Keys to St. Peter, fresco, Sistine Chapel, Vatican. Reproduced in Baxandall, Painting and Experience , 67, fig. 32.

223. Lateral face of an altar, episcopal museum, Vich. Reproduced in Duran I Sanpere et al., Peinture catalane , pl. II; and Josep Gudiol i Cunill, La pintura mig-eval catalana , vol. 2, Els primitius segona part, La pintura sobre fusta (Barcelona: S. Babra, 1929), fig. 94.

224. Tosses, detail of the frontal of the retable of St. Michael Weighing Souls,

lateral of an altar table, Suriguerola. Reproduced in Joaquim Folch i Torres, La pintura romànica sobre fusta , Monumenta cataloniae, 9 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1956), 56, pl. 89; Appendix, 50, pl. 81.

225. Acta 1.4.

226. Raymond of Peñaforte, Summa de poenitentia et matrimonio 3.34.1, cited by Thomas N. Tentler, Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 105.

227. See ibid., citing a Scotist, Jacobus Lupi Rebello, Fructus , a. 23.

228. See, without reference to Loyola, Tentler, Sin and Confession , 96-97, 104-11, 263-73; and for the rigorist requirement of a complete confession, also Killian McDonald, "The summae confessorum on the Integrity of Confession as Prolegomena for Luther and Trent," Theological Studies 54 (1993):405-26.

229. Tentler, Sin and Confession , 281-94, citing Andreas de Escobar, Modus confitendi , B2b, 292; and Eck, 298, and see n. 68.

230. Acta 3.28.

231. Bernard of Clairvaux, De gradibus humilitatis 22.56; The Steps of Humility and Pride , trans. M. Basil Pennington, in The Works of Bernard of Clairvaux , Cistercian Fathers, 13 (Washington, D.C.: Cistercian Publications Consortium, 1974), 5:82; ibid. 1-21.

230. Acta 3.28.

232. Acta 2.3.

233. Lull, Horas de nuestra Señora 1-4, 16; Hores de santa Maria 41.3-4, 6.

234. Acta 2.17.

235. See Russell A. Peck, "Number as a Cosmic Language," in Essays in Numerical Criticism in Medieval Literature , ed. Caroline D. Eckhardt (Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1980), 15-64.

236. Acta 1.1.

237. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 84-89; Las siete partidas , trans. Samuel Parsons Scott (Chicago: Commerce Clearing House for the Comparative Law Bureau of the American Bar Association, 1931), 353. For a review of anthropological interpretations of honor see John H. R. Davis, People of the Mediterranean: An Essay in Comparative Social Anthropology (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), 89-101.

238. E.g. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae 3a.32.4; In 3 Sententiae 3.5. For its basis in Aristotle see Prudence Allen, The Concept of Woman: The Aristotelian Revolution , 750 B.C.-A.D. 1250 (Montreal: Eden, 1985), 83-126.

239. Ephemeris , p. 94.

240. Richard of St. Laurent, De laudibus beatae Mariae Virginis 12.1, 7.

241. Virgin as a tabernacle, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Reproduced closed and open in Barbara G. Lane, The Altar and the Altarpiece: Sacramental Themes in Early Netherlandish Painting (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 27 and 28, figs. 17-18.

242. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 330.

243. For the paintings of the circumcision and the martyrs, including Mary queen of martyrs, see Howard Hibbard, " Ut picturae sermones : The First Painted Decorations of the Gesù," in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution , ed.

Rudolf Wittkower and Irma B. Jaffe (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976), 33, 35, and pls. 18a-21b. The interpretation is mine.

244. Acta 3.29.

245. Augustine, Confessiones 7.5.7; trans. Bourke, 168; cf. Plotinus, Enneads 4.3.9; 6.16.26; 7.3.5; 7.9.13-15.

246. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

247. See Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 9.3.88.

248. Acta 2.27

249. See Jesse M. Gellrich, The Idea of the Book in the Middle Ages: Language Theory, Mythology, and Fiction (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), 181, 189-90. For rhetorical hestitation see also Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 9.3.88.

250. Acta 2.14; 3.20; 3.21.

251. Acta 3.21.

252. See Michael J. Ruggiero, The Evolution of the Go-Between in Spanish Literature through the Sixteenth Century , University of California Publications in Modern Philology (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966); Jacques Bailbé, "Le thème de la vieille femme dans la poésie satirique du XVIe et du début du XVIIe siècle." Bibliothèque d'humanisme et Renaissance 26 (1964):98-119. For procuresses in Spanish society see Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest , 199-201.

253. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 98, 226.

254. See Christian, Apparitions , 185.

255. See sor María de santo Domingo, Libro de la oración ; Mary E. Giles, The Book of Prayer of sor María of santo Domingo (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), 3, 19, 77, 112, and passim; Bernardino Llorca, La Inquisición española y los alumbrados (1509-1667): Según las actas originales de Madrid y de otros archivos , Biblioteca de teólogos españoles, 7 (Salamanca: Universidad pontificia, 1980), 37-64, 259-71; Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:606; Marcel Bataillon, Erasmo y España: Estudios sobre la historia espiritual del siglo XVI , rev. ed. (Mexico: Fondo de cultura económica, 1950), 69-70. See also Jodi Bilinkoff, "A Spanish Prophetess and Her Patrons: The Case of María de santo Domingo," Sixteenth Century Journal 23 (1992):21-34; idem, "Charisma and Controversy: The Case of María de sto. Domingo," Archivo dominicano 10 (1989):55-66.

256. For the titles see Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest , 16-21.

257. Christian, Apparitions , 186, 197-198, citing indirectly Jean Gerson, De examinatione doctrinarum 2.2.

258. Gerson, De examinatione doctrinarum 2.2, cited by D. Catherine Brown, Pastor and Laity in the Theology of Jean Gerson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 223, and see also 214-26.

259. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 232.

260. Acta 3.37.

261. See Green, "On Damning with Faint Praise in Medieval Literature," Viator 6 (1975):117-69; idem, Irony in the Medieval Romance , 9, citing Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 11.21.41, and Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 8.6.54-55; 9; trans. Butler, 3:333. See also Dilwyn Knox, " Ironia": Medieval and Re-

naissance Ideas on Irony , Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition, 16 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989), 15-16, 32, 43, passim; and for the difference between medieval and modern irony, Simon Gaunt, The Troubadours and Irony , Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 5-38.

262. Gaunt, Troubadours and Irony , 22, 10-15, citing at 10 Buoncompagno of Signa, Rhetorica antiqua , fol. 9v-10r, from "Appendix: Definition of Irony by Buoncompagno of Signa from His Rhetorica antiqua , fol. 9v-10r," 37, in John F. Benton, "Clio and Venus: An Historical View of Medieval Love," in The Meaning of Courtly Love , Papers of the First Annual Conference of the Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, State University of New York at Binghamton, March 17-18, 1967, ed. F. X. Newman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1968), 19-42.

263. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 86.