1. See Richard D. Coe, "A Preliminary Empirical Examination of the Dynamics of Welfare Use," in Martha S. Hill, Daniel H. Hill, and James N. Morgan, eds. Five Thousand American Families—Patterns of Economic Progress, Volume 9: Analyses of the First Twelve Years of the Panel Study on Income Dynamics (Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1981), pp. 121-68, especially pp. 159-60; Greg J. Duncan et al., Years of Poverty, Years of Plenty: The Changing Economic Fortunes of American Workers and Families (Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1984), especially chap. 3.

2. This discussion draws on a variety of works; particularly useful are Robert N. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), especially pp. 253-62; C. B. Macpherson, Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), chap. 7, especially pp. 145-47; Joseph A. Pechman, Henry J. Aaron, and Michael K. Taussig, Social Security: Perspectives on Reform (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1968), pp. 28-30; Sidney Ratner, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla, The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making (New York: Basic Books, 1979).

3. Lester C. Thurow, The Zero-Sum Society: Distribution and the Possibilities for Economic Change (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 168-70. See also Richard Parker, The Myth of the Middle Class: Notes on Affluence and Equality (New York: Liveright, 1972).

4. William J. Goode, World Revolution and Family Patterns (New York: Free Press, 1963), pp. 10-26.

5. Jean Giles-Sims, "Expectations, Behavior, and Sanctions Associated with the Stepparent Role," Journal of Family Issues 5 (March 1984): 116-30; Greg J. Duncan and James N. Morgan, "Persistence and Change in Economic Status and the Role of Changing Family Composition," in Hill, Hill, and Morgan, Five Thousand American Families , pp. 1-44.

6. See Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), bk. 1, chaps. 1 and 2.

7. Stanley Lebergott, The American Economy: Income, Wealth, and Want (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976) develops this point at length, pp. 3-20 and 88-107. This view does not take into account Michael Walzer's point that the inability of impoverished people to take part in many customary and important activities effectively denies them continue

membership in society. See Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), pp. 105-8.

8. This account draws on Lee Rainwater, "Persistent and Transitory Poverty: A New Look," Working Paper no. 70, Joint Center for Urban Studies of MIT and Harvard University, June 1981. See also Duncan et al., Years of Poverty, and three selections in Hill, Hill, and Morgan, Five Thousand Families: Duncan and Morgan, "Persistence and Change in Economic Status"; Coe, "Preliminary Empirical Examination"; and Martha S. Hill, "Some Dynamic Aspects of Poverty,'' pp. 93-120. Rainwater estimates that 16 percent of American households are persistently poor. The federal government, however, sets the "poverty line" at a lower level of annual income, and by this standard in recent years only about 13 to 15 percent of all Americans live in poverty. See Duncan et al., Years of Poverty, chap. 2.

9. See David R. Cameron, "The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis," American Political Science Review 72 (December 1978): 1243-61; David Collier and Richard E. Messick, "Prerequisites Versus Diffusion: Testing Alternative Explanations of Social Security Adoption," American Political Science Review 69 (December 1975): 1299-1315; Hugh Heclo, Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden: From Relief to Income Maintenance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974); Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Hugh Heclo, and Carolyn Teich Adams, Comparative Public Policy: The Politics of Social Choice in Europe and America, 2d ed. (New York: St. Martin's, 1983); Howard M. Leichter, A Comparative Approach to Policy Analysis: Health Care Policy in Four Nations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Gaston V. Rimlinger, Welfare Policy and Industrialization in Europe, America, and Russia (New York: Wiley, 1971); Harold L. Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality: Structural and Ideological Roots of Public Expenditures (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), chap. 3.

10. On the history of these ideas, see Henry Rogers Seager, Social Insurance: A Program of Social Reform (New York: Macmillan, 1910); Isaac Max Rubinow, Social Insurance, With Special Reference to American Conditions (New York: Henry Holt, 1913). On support and resources see G. John Ikenberry and Theda Skocpol, "Expanding Social Benefits: The Role of Social Security," Political Science Quarterly, 102 (Fall 1987): 389-416.

11. See, for instance, Benjamin I. Page, Who Gets What from Government (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), chap. 3.

12. For a more extensive listing of social insurance programs, see Roy H. Grisham, Jr., and Paul D. McConaughy, eds., Encyclopedia of United States Government Benefits, 2d ed., (New York: Avon, 1975). For statistics about the scope of social security, see Jule M. Sugarman, Gary D. continue

Bass, and Matthew J. Bader, "Human Services in the 1980's—President Reagan's 1983 Proposals, White Paper no 5: For Citizens and Public Officials," (Washington, D.C.: Human Services Information Center, 1983); Henry J. Aaron, Economic Effects of Social Security (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1982), particularly p. 67; Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Governing America: An Insider's Report from the White House and Cabinet (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), pp. 323-25; Martha Derthick, Policymaking for Social Security (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1979), p. 3. Data are periodically reported in the Social Security Bulletin .

13. Wilensky, Welfare State, pp. 65-68; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, pp. 286-89.

14. Aaron, Economic Effects, p. 78.

15. See Mary Jo Bane, "The Poor in Massachusetts," in Manuel Carbello and Mary Jo Bane, eds., The State and the Poor in the 1980s (Boston: Auburn, 1984), pp. 1-13.

16. Again, Grisham and McConaughy, Encyclopedia of Government Benefits give a more exhaustive listing.

17. See Sugarman, Bass, and Bader, "Human Services," p. 76; Califano, Governing America, pp. 323-24.

18. Lawrence M. Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Free Press, 1986), pp. 21-25, ably distinguishes various categories of the poor.

19. Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974). The attitudinalist position is also espoused by Lebergott, The American Economy .

20. Herbert J. Gans, The Urban Villages: Group and Class in the Life of Italian Americans (New York: Free Press, 1962). Or see Michael Rutter and Nicola Madge, Cycles of Disadvantage: A Review of Research (London: Heinemann, 1976).

21. In the early 1980s full-time employment (forty hours a week, fifty weeks a year) at the minimum wage provided a gross annual income of $6,700—enough to lift one- and two-person households, but not larger families, above the official poverty line.

22. Leonard Beeghley, Living Poorly in America (New York: Praeger, 1983); Duncan et al., Years of Poverty, particularly chaps. 2 and 3.

23. On psychological factors, see Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Knopf, 1973); Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (April 1986): 273-86; Leonard Goodwin, Do the Poor Want to Work? A Social-Psychological Study of Work Orientations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1972), and his Causes and Cures of Welfare: New Evidence on the Social Psychology of the Poor (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1983). Sociological factors are discussed by Duncan et al., Years continue

of Poverty, chaps. 2 and 3; Duncan and Morgan, "Persistence and Change in Economic Status."

24. Indeed, virtually all federal financial aid (grants, loans, work-study) to college students is allocated by need, depending on both the student's means and estimated expenses. This need-testing procedure is an unusual experience for middle-class parents.

25. Duncan et al., Years of Poverty, chap. 3; Coe, "Dynamics of Welfare Use"; Duncan and Morgan, "Persistence and Change in Economic Status."

26. See Henry J. Aaron, Why Is Welfare So Difficult to Reform? (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1973), chap. 4, and his On Social Welfare (Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1980), chap. 2.

27. See Henry J. Aaron, Politics and the Professors: The Great Society in Perspective (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1978); Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971).

28. Hugh Heclo, "Income Maintenance Policy," in Heidenheimer, Heclo, and Adams, Comparative Public Policy, p. 214.

29. Shail Jain, Size Distribution of Income: A Compilation of Data (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1975) shows no marked pattern of exceptional poverty in the United States. But this view is contradicted by OECD, Studies in Resource Allocation, no. 3: Public Expenditure on Income Maintenance Programmes (Paris: OECD, 1976), pp. 66-68 and 108-9.

30. Heclo, "Income Maintenance Policy," p. 202.

31. In my view, mead's suggestions for intensive guidance in Beyond Entitlement are much more appropriately limited to people in this third category than applied generally to the impoverished.

32. Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981) pp. 14 and 22.

33. Donald J. Devine, The Political Culture of the United States: The Influence of Member Values on Regime Maintenance (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972).

34. Lloyd A. Free and Hadley Cantril, The Political Beliefs of Americans: A Study of Public Opinion (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1967), especially pp. 15-40.

35. See Wilensky, Welfare State, pp. 28-49; Richard M. Coughlin, Ideology, Public Opinion, and Welfare Policy: Attitudes Toward Taxes and Spending in Industrialized Societies (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of Calfornia, 1980), p. 31.

36. Jennifer L. Hochschild, What's Fair? American Beliefs About Distributive Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), especially chap. 3. break

37. On the influence of the elite in shaping policy, see Anthony King, "Ideas, Institutions, and the Policies of Governments: A Comparative Analysis," British Journal of Political Science 3 (July 1973): 291-313 and 3 (October 1973): 409-23; David Vogel, "Why Businessmen Distrust Their State: The Political Consciousness of American Corporate Executives," British Journal of Political Science 8 (January 1978): 45-78. On the elite's influence on public opinion, see Robert Nisbet, ''Public Opinion Versus Popular Opinion," in Nathan Glazer and Irving Kristol, eds., The American Commonwealth—1976 (New York: Basic Books, 1976), pp. 166-92.

38. For an analysis that concurs with Huntington's core values, see Norman Furniss and Timothy Tilton, The Case for the Welfare State: From Social Security to Social Equality (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977), chaps. 7 and 8. On the same point see as well Charles Lockhart, "Values and Policy Conceptions of Health Policy Elites in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Federal Republic of Germany," Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 6 (Spring 1981): 98-119. For an analysis that diverges from Huntington's core values, see Joel D. Aberbach, Robert D. Putnam, and Bert A. Rockman, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), chap. 5, especially pp. 122-24.

39. Huntington, American Politics, p. 230; see also p. 15.

40. Again, compare with Huntington, American Politics, p. 113.

41. See Friedrich A. Hayek, The Mirage of Social Justice, vol. 2 of Law, Legislation, and Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976); Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).

42. These rights have a long history, albeit not always a continuous one in market societies. See Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, The New Class War: Reagan's Attack on the Welfare State and Its Consequences (New York: Pantheon, 1982), chaps. 2-4; R. N. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism: A Historical Study (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1926).