Chapter Three The Paradox of the Physiocrats: State Building and Agrarian Capitalism in Eighteenth-Century France
1 Joseph Schumpeter, Economic Doctrine and Method, trans. R. Aris (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1954), 43-44. See also Eric Roll, A History of Economic Thought, 4th ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1973), 130; and Michael Bleaney, Underconsumption Theories: A History and Critical Analysis (New York: International Publishers, 1976), 84. It is beyond the bounds of this discussion to take up the question as to what constitutes a "scientific" economics. My own approach to this
question begins from Marx's distinction between classical and vulgar political economy. See Karl Marx, Capital, trans. Ben Fowkes (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976),1: 174 n -75 n .
2 Norman J. Ware, ''The Physiocrats: A Study in Economic Rationalization," American Economic Review 21 (1931): 607; Max Beer, An Inquiry into Physiocracy (1939; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, 1966), 17; Thomas P. Neill, "Quesnay and Physiocracy," Journal of the History of Ideas 9 (1948): 153; Bert F. Hoselitz, "Agrarian Capitalism, the Natural Order of Things: François Quesnay," Kyklos 21 (1968): 638.
3 Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, The Origins of Physiocracy: Economic Revolution and Social Order in Eighteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976), 13.
4 Georges Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique en France (de 1756 à 1770) (1910; reprint, Paris: Editions Mouton, 1968), 2: 148; my translation.
5 Ibid., 2: 684-85; my translation. Weulerrse does recognize that there are "feudal vestiges" in the physiocratic system, although he downplays their importance; see 2: 710.
4 Georges Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique en France (de 1756 à 1770) (1910; reprint, Paris: Editions Mouton, 1968), 2: 148; my translation.
5 Ibid., 2: 684-85; my translation. Weulerrse does recognize that there are "feudal vestiges" in the physiocratic system, although he downplays their importance; see 2: 710.
6 Hoselitz, "Agrarian Capitalism," 637, 650, 657; Guy Routh, The Origin of Economic Ideas (London: Macmillan and Co., 1975), 79.
7 Warren J. Samuels, "The Physiocratic Theory of Property and the State," Quarterly Journal of Economics 75 (1961): 110. See also idem., "The Physiocratic Theory of Economic Policy," Quarterly Journal of Economics 76 (1962).
8 Roll, History of Economic Thought, 135; Joseph Schumpeter, History Of Economic Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1954), 228.
9 Beer, Inquiry, 13, 169-70.
10 Karl Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, trans. Emile Burns, ed. S. W. Ryazanskaya (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1963), 1: 152.
11 Ronald Meek, "The Case of the French Physiocrats," in Events, Ideology, and Economic Theory, ed. Robert V. Eagly (Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1968), 55. The same perspective informs Meek's The Economics of Physiocracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963) (hereafter cited as EP ).
12 Fox-Genovese, 235.
13 Ibid., 265, 58, 61.
12 Fox-Genovese, 235.
13 Ibid., 265, 58, 61.
14 Jan Marczewski, "Some Aspects of the Economic Growth of France," Economic Development and Cultural Change 9 (1961): 370.
15 Abbé Le Blanc, Letters on the English and French Nations, 2 vols. (London, 1747), as quoted by André Bourde, The Influence of England on the French Agronomes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 18-19.
16 See Bourde, chap. 4.
17 Patullo, Essai, as quoted in ibid., 83; my translation.
16 See Bourde, chap. 4.
17 Patullo, Essai, as quoted in ibid., 83; my translation.
18 Marc Bloch, "La lutte pour l'individualisme agraire dans la France du XVIIIe siècle, 2e partie," Annales d'histoire économique et sociale 2 (1930): 536.
19 Marc Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics, trans. Janet Sondheimer (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), 221-22.
20 Bourde, 103-4.
21 Bloch, French Rural History, 206.
22 Stephen L. Kaplan, Bread, Politics, and Political Economy in the Reign of Lout's XV (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976), 1: 86.
23 My discussion of Herbert and Forbonnais relies on ibid., 1: 101-4, 111-12.
24 Ibid., 1: chap. 3.
22 Stephen L. Kaplan, Bread, Politics, and Political Economy in the Reign of Lout's XV (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976), 1: 86.
23 My discussion of Herbert and Forbonnais relies on ibid., 1: 101-4, 111-12.
24 Ibid., 1: chap. 3.
22 Stephen L. Kaplan, Bread, Politics, and Political Economy in the Reign of Lout's XV (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976), 1: 86.
23 My discussion of Herbert and Forbonnais relies on ibid., 1: 101-4, 111-12.
24 Ibid., 1: chap. 3.
25 Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 1: 34.
26 Schumpeter, History, 218.
27 The most reliable biographical information on Cantillon is provided by Joseph Hone, "Richard Cantillon, Economist—Biographical Note," Economic Journal 65 (1944). W. Stanley Jevons's article, "Richard Cantillon and the Nationality of Political Economy," was first published in the Contemporary Review, January 1881, and is reprinted in Richard Cantillon, Essai sur la nature du commerce en général ( Essay on the Nature of Trade in General ), trans. and ed. Henry Higgs (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1964). See also Henry Higgs, "Richard Cantillon," Economic Journal 1 (1891); and idem, "Cantillon's Place in Economics,'' Quarterly Journal of Economics 6 (1892).
28 On the influence of Petty on Cantillon see Higgs, "Cantillon's Place," 438; Roll, 124; and Schumpeter, History, 217 n, 218-19. For an assessment of Cantillon's theoretical achievements see Joseph J. Spengler, "Richard Cantillon: First of the Moderns," parts 1, 2, Journal of Political Economy 62 (1954).
29 Cantillon, Essai, 3, 15, 43.
30 Ibid., 123. Schumpeter, History, 222, writes that "Cantillon had a clear conception of the function of the entrepreneur (ch. 13)." Cantillon did not, however, work with a model based upon capitalists and wage labourers; indeed, in the Essai he includes labourers and beggars in his category of "entrepreneurs."
29 Cantillon, Essai, 3, 15, 43.
30 Ibid., 123. Schumpeter, History, 222, writes that "Cantillon had a clear conception of the function of the entrepreneur (ch. 13)." Cantillon did not, however, work with a model based upon capitalists and wage labourers; indeed, in the Essai he includes labourers and beggars in his category of "entrepreneurs."
31 Cantillon, Essai, 123, 47; see also 61-63.
32 Ibid., 31.
33 Ibid., 29; my emphasis.
34 Ibid., 43.
35 Ibid., 35.
36 Ibid., 41.
31 Cantillon, Essai, 123, 47; see also 61-63.
32 Ibid., 31.
33 Ibid., 29; my emphasis.
34 Ibid., 43.
35 Ibid., 35.
36 Ibid., 41.
31 Cantillon, Essai, 123, 47; see also 61-63.
32 Ibid., 31.
33 Ibid., 29; my emphasis.
34 Ibid., 43.
35 Ibid., 35.
36 Ibid., 41.
31 Cantillon, Essai, 123, 47; see also 61-63.
32 Ibid., 31.
33 Ibid., 29; my emphasis.
34 Ibid., 43.
35 Ibid., 35.
36 Ibid., 41.
31 Cantillon, Essai, 123, 47; see also 61-63.
32 Ibid., 31.
33 Ibid., 29; my emphasis.
34 Ibid., 43.
35 Ibid., 35.
36 Ibid., 41.
31 Cantillon, Essai, 123, 47; see also 61-63.
32 Ibid., 31.
33 Ibid., 29; my emphasis.
34 Ibid., 43.
35 Ibid., 35.
36 Ibid., 41.
37 Higgs, "Cantillon's Place," 454. For Cantillon's influence on Physiocracy see Schumpeter, History, 242; and Vernon Foley, "An Origin of the Tableau économique, " History of Political Economy 5 (1973): 139-41.
38 For Mirabeau's conversion see Meek, EP, 16-18. On Quesnay's life see Jacqueline Hecht, "La vie de François Quesnay," in François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 2 vols. (Paris: Institut National d'Etudes Démographiques, 1958).
39 As quoted by Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 1: 159.
40 Robert V. Eagly, The Structure of Classical Economic Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 10.
41 It is interesting that the largest collection of English translations from physiocratic writings, Meek's EP, does not include any excerpts from this article.
42 Quesnay, "Fermiers," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 2: 427; my translation; emphasis in original.
43 Ibid., 455; my translation.
44 Ibid., 446, 452, 451.
45 Ibid., 428, 435, 431, 440; my translations.
46 Ibid., 452; my translation.
42 Quesnay, "Fermiers," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 2: 427; my translation; emphasis in original.
43 Ibid., 455; my translation.
44 Ibid., 446, 452, 451.
45 Ibid., 428, 435, 431, 440; my translations.
46 Ibid., 452; my translation.
42 Quesnay, "Fermiers," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 2: 427; my translation; emphasis in original.
43 Ibid., 455; my translation.
44 Ibid., 446, 452, 451.
45 Ibid., 428, 435, 431, 440; my translations.
46 Ibid., 452; my translation.
42 Quesnay, "Fermiers," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 2: 427; my translation; emphasis in original.
43 Ibid., 455; my translation.
44 Ibid., 446, 452, 451.
45 Ibid., 428, 435, 431, 440; my translations.
46 Ibid., 452; my translation.
42 Quesnay, "Fermiers," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 2: 427; my translation; emphasis in original.
43 Ibid., 455; my translation.
44 Ibid., 446, 452, 451.
45 Ibid., 428, 435, 431, 440; my translations.
46 Ibid., 452; my translation.
47 Meek, EP, 267.
48 Quesnay, "Grains," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 495; as translated by Meek, EP, 76.
49 Quesnay, "Grains," 498; as translated by W. A. Eltis, "François Quesnay: A Reinterpretation, 1. The Tableau économique, " Oxford Economic Papers, n. ser., 27 (1975): 170.
50 Quesnay, "Grains," 83; my translation. This does not mean that Quesnay consciously pursued a capitalist orientation, merely that the social arrangements he advocated were capitalist, whether he knew it or not.
51 Ibid., 480, 505; my translation. On Cantillon's influence on this work see Meek, EP, 268.
50 Quesnay, "Grains," 83; my translation. This does not mean that Quesnay consciously pursued a capitalist orientation, merely that the social arrangements he advocated were capitalist, whether he knew it or not.
51 Ibid., 480, 505; my translation. On Cantillon's influence on this work see Meek, EP, 268.
52 Quesnay, "Grains," 484; my translation.
53 Ibid., 496.
54 Ibid., 505, 505-6; as translated by Meek, EP, 82.
52 Quesnay, "Grains," 484; my translation.
53 Ibid., 496.
54 Ibid., 505, 505-6; as translated by Meek, EP, 82.
52 Quesnay, "Grains," 484; my translation.
53 Ibid., 496.
54 Ibid., 505, 505-6; as translated by Meek, EP, 82.
55 Quesnay, "Hommes," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 527-28, 547, 560, 563; as translated by Meek, EP, 91, 95, 98, 100. The last passage clearly disproves Beer's thesis.
56 Ibid., 524, 548, 553-54, 568.
57 Ibid., 558; as translated by Meek, EP, 98.
58 Ibid., 553; as translated by Meek, EP, 97. On feudalism see "Hommes," 567.
59 Ibid., 540; my translation.
55 Quesnay, "Hommes," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 527-28, 547, 560, 563; as translated by Meek, EP, 91, 95, 98, 100. The last passage clearly disproves Beer's thesis.
56 Ibid., 524, 548, 553-54, 568.
57 Ibid., 558; as translated by Meek, EP, 98.
58 Ibid., 553; as translated by Meek, EP, 97. On feudalism see "Hommes," 567.
59 Ibid., 540; my translation.
55 Quesnay, "Hommes," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 527-28, 547, 560, 563; as translated by Meek, EP, 91, 95, 98, 100. The last passage clearly disproves Beer's thesis.
56 Ibid., 524, 548, 553-54, 568.
57 Ibid., 558; as translated by Meek, EP, 98.
58 Ibid., 553; as translated by Meek, EP, 97. On feudalism see "Hommes," 567.
59 Ibid., 540; my translation.
55 Quesnay, "Hommes," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 527-28, 547, 560, 563; as translated by Meek, EP, 91, 95, 98, 100. The last passage clearly disproves Beer's thesis.
56 Ibid., 524, 548, 553-54, 568.
57 Ibid., 558; as translated by Meek, EP, 98.
58 Ibid., 553; as translated by Meek, EP, 97. On feudalism see "Hommes," 567.
59 Ibid., 540; my translation.
55 Quesnay, "Hommes," François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 527-28, 547, 560, 563; as translated by Meek, EP, 91, 95, 98, 100. The last passage clearly disproves Beer's thesis.
56 Ibid., 524, 548, 553-54, 568.
57 Ibid., 558; as translated by Meek, EP, 98.
58 Ibid., 553; as translated by Meek, EP, 97. On feudalism see "Hommes," 567.
59 Ibid., 540; my translation.
60 Quesnay, "Impôts," François Quesnay et la phystocratie, 2: 581; as translated by Meek, EP, 103.
61 Ibid., 582; my translation.
60 Quesnay, "Impôts," François Quesnay et la phystocratie, 2: 581; as translated by Meek, EP, 103.
61 Ibid., 582; my translation.
62 On the history of the various editions of the Tableau see the introduction to Quesnay's Tableau Economique, ed. and trans. Marguerite Kuczynski and Ronald Meek (London: Macmillan and Co., 1972). Quesnay's major elaborations of the Tableau —the famous "Analysis," the "First Problem," and the ''Second Problem"—are reprinted in Meek, EP . The Tableau also figured centrally, in a revised form, in Mirabeau's Philosophie rurale and was succinctly explained in the abbé Baudeau's Explication du tableau économique . Mark Blaug's statement in Economic Theory in Retrospect, 3d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 26, that the Tableau "should not be regarded as
the centerpiece of the physiocratic system" shows a failure to grasp the crucial role of this work in the physiocratic schema.
63 Victor Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale (Amsterdam, 1763), 19; Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, 1: 344; see also Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence, 2d ed. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), 142-46; and Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 2, trans. David Fernbach (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), esp. chaps. 18-20; Schumpeter, Economic Doctrine and Method, 52. For a review of positions on the Tableau see Almarin Phillips, "The Tableau économique as a Simple Leontief Model," Quarterly Journal of Economics 69 (1955): 137-38.
64 "Letter from Quesnay to Mirabeau," Meek, EP, 117.
65 Quesnay, "The Analysis of the Tableau économique," Meek, EP, 153; Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale, 31, 71, 118, 151-52, 163, 337.
66 Kuczynski and Meek, Quesnay's Tableau, 15.
67 For an argument which demonstrates that the Tableau does indeed constitute a workable model, see Eltis. Meek, EP, 278 n 2, argues convincingly that Quesnay wrote chap. 7 of Philosophie rurale .
68 "Letter from Quesnay to Mirabeau," 117.
69 Kuczynski and Meek, Quesnay's Tableau, 22.
70 Quesnay, "General Maxims for the Economic Government of an Agricultural Kingdom," Meek, EP, 237; Kuczynski and Meek, 13, Quesnay's emphasis; Quesnay, "General Maxims," 246.
71 Quesnay, "The Second Econonomic Problem," in Meek, EP, 202, 190.
72 Quesnay, "Analysis," ibid., 163 n l.
73 Quesnay, "General Maxims," ibid., 231; emphasis in original.
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid., 260.
71 Quesnay, "The Second Econonomic Problem," in Meek, EP, 202, 190.
72 Quesnay, "Analysis," ibid., 163 n l.
73 Quesnay, "General Maxims," ibid., 231; emphasis in original.
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid., 260.
71 Quesnay, "The Second Econonomic Problem," in Meek, EP, 202, 190.
72 Quesnay, "Analysis," ibid., 163 n l.
73 Quesnay, "General Maxims," ibid., 231; emphasis in original.
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid., 260.
71 Quesnay, "The Second Econonomic Problem," in Meek, EP, 202, 190.
72 Quesnay, "Analysis," ibid., 163 n l.
73 Quesnay, "General Maxims," ibid., 231; emphasis in original.
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid., 260.
71 Quesnay, "The Second Econonomic Problem," in Meek, EP, 202, 190.
72 Quesnay, "Analysis," ibid., 163 n l.
73 Quesnay, "General Maxims," ibid., 231; emphasis in original.
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid., 260.
76 Fox-Genovese, Origins of Physiocracy, 292.
77 Quesnay, "The First Economic Problem," in Meek, EP, 180 n l; see also "General Maxims," 238.
78 Kuczynski and Meek, 17, ll n a.
79 Ibid., 12; Quesnay, "Analysis," 159; idem, "General Maxims," 231; idem, "Fermiers," 454-55; Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale, 34.
78 Kuczynski and Meek, 17, ll n a.
79 Ibid., 12; Quesnay, "Analysis," 159; idem, "General Maxims," 231; idem, "Fermiers," 454-55; Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale, 34.
80 Quesnay, "General Maxims," in Meek, EP, 233.
81 Quesnay, "Fermiers," 453; Kuczynski and Meek, 14-15, 20 n a.
82 Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 1: 412; see also Kaplan, 1: 116.
83 As quoted by Fox-Genovese, Origins of Physiocracy, 243.
84 Quesnay, "General Maxims," 232.
85 Quesnay, "Analysis," 160; Kuczynski and Meek, 21.
86 Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 1: 85-86.
87 This point is made convincingly by Foley. However, certain Newtonian and Lockean influences have been detected by some commentators (e.g., Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 2: 118), although these must, in my view, be seen as influences adapted to a largely Cartesian framework.
88 Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale, 190; my translation.
89 Quesnay, "Despotisme de la Chine," in François Quesnay et la physiocratie, 2: 921; my translation.
90 Guillaume-François Le Trosne, De l'ordre social (Paris, 1777), 106; my translation.
91 Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale; as translated by Meek, EP, 70.
92 Le Trosne, 134; my translation. See also Georges Weulerrse, Les Manuscrits économiques de François Quesnay et du marquis de Mirabeau aux Archives nationales (Paris: Editions Mouton, 1910), 29, 53-54; and Quesnay, "Despotisme," 233.
93 Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale; as translated by Meek, EP, 58.
94 Quesnay, "Despotisme," 919; my translation.
95 Le Trosne, 120, 124; my translation.
96 As quoted by Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 1: 201.
97 Quesnay, "Hommes," 540; my translation.
98 Quesnay, "Despotisme," 918; Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 1: 8-31.
99 Mercier de la Rivière, L'Ordre naturel et essentiel des sociétés politiques, as quoted by Mario Einaudi, The Physiocratic Doctrine of Judicial Control (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1938), 41; my translation.
100 For his views on the Physiocrats and the Paris parlement see Einaudi, 47; on the connection to the American doctrine of judicial control see 88. Einaudi recognizes (43) that Mercier did not believe in the priority of the judiciary.
101 Quesnay, "Hommes," 567; and "Despotisme," 933, 919; my translation.
102 Einaudi, 47.
103 Ibid., 34.
104 As quoted in ibid., 78; my translation.
102 Einaudi, 47.
103 Ibid., 34.
104 As quoted in ibid., 78; my translation.
102 Einaudi, 47.
103 Ibid., 34.
104 As quoted in ibid., 78; my translation.
105 Quesnay, "General Maxims," in Meek, EP, 231.
106 Weulerrse, Manuscrits, 66; Einaudi (34) sets out Le Trosne's support for a council of advisors to the king.
107 Weulerrse, Manuscrits, 32.
108 Kaplan, 1: 116.
109 See, for example, Kuczynski and Meek, 8; Quesnay, "Hommes," 550; idem, "The Analysis," 153; idem, "General Maxims," 237.
110 Kaplan, 1: 90-96.
111 Ibid., 2: 489, 498-515.
112 As quoted in ibid., 2: 476-81.
113 Ibid., 2: 594-601.
114 As quoted in ibid., 2: 609.
115 Ibid., 2: 610.
110 Kaplan, 1: 90-96.
111 Ibid., 2: 489, 498-515.
112 As quoted in ibid., 2: 476-81.
113 Ibid., 2: 594-601.
114 As quoted in ibid., 2: 609.
115 Ibid., 2: 610.
110 Kaplan, 1: 90-96.
111 Ibid., 2: 489, 498-515.
112 As quoted in ibid., 2: 476-81.
113 Ibid., 2: 594-601.
114 As quoted in ibid., 2: 609.
115 Ibid., 2: 610.
110 Kaplan, 1: 90-96.
111 Ibid., 2: 489, 498-515.
112 As quoted in ibid., 2: 476-81.
113 Ibid., 2: 594-601.
114 As quoted in ibid., 2: 609.
115 Ibid., 2: 610.
110 Kaplan, 1: 90-96.
111 Ibid., 2: 489, 498-515.
112 As quoted in ibid., 2: 476-81.
113 Ibid., 2: 594-601.
114 As quoted in ibid., 2: 609.
115 Ibid., 2: 610.
110 Kaplan, 1: 90-96.
111 Ibid., 2: 489, 498-515.
112 As quoted in ibid., 2: 476-81.
113 Ibid., 2: 594-601.
114 As quoted in ibid., 2: 609.
115 Ibid., 2: 610.
116 Indeed, Schumpeter believed that Turgot's capital theory was "distinctly superior" to that of Adam Smith ( History, 248). See also Henry William Spiegel, The Growth of Economic Thought (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1971), 155.
117 Douglas Dakin, Turgot and the Ancien Rigime in France (1939; reprint, New York: Octagon Books, 1965), 2.
118 Schumpeter, History, 243-44.
119 Turgot, "Plan for a Paper on Taxation," in The Economics of A. R. J. Turgot, ed. and trans. P. D. Groenewegen (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1977), 102-3.
120 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," ibid., 116.
121 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Graslin," ibid., 127; idem, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," 110-11; idem, "Letters on the Grain Trade," ibid., 168.
122 Turgot, "In Praise of Gournay," ibid., 29.
119 Turgot, "Plan for a Paper on Taxation," in The Economics of A. R. J. Turgot, ed. and trans. P. D. Groenewegen (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1977), 102-3.
120 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," ibid., 116.
121 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Graslin," ibid., 127; idem, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," 110-11; idem, "Letters on the Grain Trade," ibid., 168.
122 Turgot, "In Praise of Gournay," ibid., 29.
119 Turgot, "Plan for a Paper on Taxation," in The Economics of A. R. J. Turgot, ed. and trans. P. D. Groenewegen (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1977), 102-3.
120 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," ibid., 116.
121 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Graslin," ibid., 127; idem, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," 110-11; idem, "Letters on the Grain Trade," ibid., 168.
122 Turgot, "In Praise of Gournay," ibid., 29.
119 Turgot, "Plan for a Paper on Taxation," in The Economics of A. R. J. Turgot, ed. and trans. P. D. Groenewegen (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1977), 102-3.
120 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," ibid., 116.
121 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Graslin," ibid., 127; idem, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," 110-11; idem, "Letters on the Grain Trade," ibid., 168.
122 Turgot, "In Praise of Gournay," ibid., 29.
123 Abbé Baudeau, Première Introduction à la philosophie économique (Paris, 1910) as quoted by Meek, EP, 309.
124 Turgot, "Plan for a Paper on Taxation," 103.
125 Mercier de la Rivière, L'ordre naturel, as quoted by J. J. Spengler, "The Physiocrats and Say's Law of Markets," pt. 2, Journal of Political Economy 53 (1945): 317.
126 As quoted by Warren J. Samuels, "The Physiocratic Theory of Property and the State," 103.
127 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Saint-Peravy," 115-16.
128 Turgot, "Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth," in Turgot on Progress, Sociology, and Economics, ed. Ronald Meek (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 147, 150; emphasis in original.
129 Ibid., 152, 153, 169.
130 Ibid., 181.
131 Ibid., 146.
132 Ibid., 172.
128 Turgot, "Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth," in Turgot on Progress, Sociology, and Economics, ed. Ronald Meek (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 147, 150; emphasis in original.
129 Ibid., 152, 153, 169.
130 Ibid., 181.
131 Ibid., 146.
132 Ibid., 172.
128 Turgot, "Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth," in Turgot on Progress, Sociology, and Economics, ed. Ronald Meek (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 147, 150; emphasis in original.
129 Ibid., 152, 153, 169.
130 Ibid., 181.
131 Ibid., 146.
132 Ibid., 172.
128 Turgot, "Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth," in Turgot on Progress, Sociology, and Economics, ed. Ronald Meek (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 147, 150; emphasis in original.
129 Ibid., 152, 153, 169.
130 Ibid., 181.
131 Ibid., 146.
132 Ibid., 172.
128 Turgot, "Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth," in Turgot on Progress, Sociology, and Economics, ed. Ronald Meek (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 147, 150; emphasis in original.
129 Ibid., 152, 153, 169.
130 Ibid., 181.
131 Ibid., 146.
132 Ibid., 172.
133 See James McLain, The Economic Writings of Dupont de Nemours (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1977), 176-77.
134 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Graslin," 127, emphasis in original.
135 Turgot, "Letters on the Grain Trade," 178.
136 Turgot, "Observations on a Paper by Graslin," 132.
137 As quoted by W. Walker Stephens, ed., The Life and Writings of Turgot (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1895), 45.
138 Meek, EP, 312.
139 Marx, Capital, 2: 436.
140 The passage from Turgot is quoted by Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, 1: 56.
141 Quoted by Weulerrse, Le Mouvement physiocratique, 1: 147.
142 Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, 1: 66.
143 Ware, "The Physiocrats," 618.
144 Meek, EP, 393-94; Ware, "The Physiocrats," 608.
145 Isaac Ilyich Rubin, A History of Economic Thought, trans. Donald Filtzer (London: Ink Links, 1979), 106.
146 Ibid., 140.
145 Isaac Ilyich Rubin, A History of Economic Thought, trans. Donald Filtzer (London: Ink Links, 1979), 106.
146 Ibid., 140.
147 Fox-Genovese, Origins of Physiocracy, 61.
148 Ibid., 31, 56-57.
147 Fox-Genovese, Origins of Physiocracy, 61.
148 Ibid., 31, 56-57.
149 On the aristocratic revolt see Albert Soboul, The French Revolution,
trans. Alan Forrest (London: New Left Books, 1974), vol. 1, chap. 3; Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution from Its Origins to 1793, trans. Elizabeth Moss Evanson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), vol. 1, chap. 6.
150 Schumpeter, History, 229 n 2.
151 Herbert Luthy, From Calvin to Rousseau, trans. Salvator Attanasio (New York: Basic Books, 1970), 139.
152 Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 21.
153 Kuczynski and Meek, 6 n a.
154 Tom Kemp, Historical Patterns of Industrialization (London: Longman Group, 1978), 17.
155 John Bosher, French Finance, 1770-1795: From Business to Bureaucracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 126.
156 Quesnay, "The First Economic Problem," 180 n 3; Mirabeau, Philosophie rurale, 61.
157 Quesnay, "General Maxims," 239.
158 Luthy, 148-49.
159 Turgot, "Plan for a Paper on Taxation," 107.