1. 1. For the concept of "invented tradition," see E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger, eds., The Invention of Traditions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

2. 2. For recent literature on May Day, see A. Panaccione, May Day Celebration (Venice: Marsilio Editori, 1988); E. Hobsbawm, "100 Years of May Day," Times Literary Supplement, 14 May 1990; C. Wrigley, "May Days and After," History Today, June 1990, pp. 35-42; P. Foner, May Day (New York: International Publishers, 1986).

3. 3. S. Mani, Tarikhcheh-e Nahzat-e Kargari dar Iran (Short history of the labor movement in Iran) (Tehran: Taban Press,

1946), pp. 1-25; M. Nashehi, "Workers' Organizations in Iran," Rahbar, 10 Apr. 1944; R. Rusta, "The Central Council of Federated Trade Unions," Razm Mahnameh 1 (June 1946): 62-64; A. Ovanessian, "Reminiscences of the Communist Party of Iran," Donya 3, no. 1 (Spring 1962): 33-34; idem, Safahat-e Chand az Jonbesh-e Kargari va Komunisti-ye Iran dar Dawreh-e Aval-e Saltanat-e Reza Shah (A few pages from the history of the workers' and Communist movement in Iran during the early years of Reza Shah's rule) (N.p.: Tudeh Party Press, 1979), pp. 1-140; P. Mehrban, "Memoirs of Comrade Yasari," Donya 2, no. 7 (Sept.-Oct. 1980): 126-32; F. Qassemi, Sindykalism dar Iran (Syndicalism in Iran) (Paris: Mosaddeq Publishing Foundation, 1985), vol. 1.

4. 4. In 1920 the Armenian Social Democratic Hunchak Party — a former affiliate of the Russian Social Democratic Party — had organized an indoor May Day meeting in its Tabriz clubhouse. This meeting, however, was intended for the Armenian community alone; the announcement was in Armenian, and the meeting was conducted in Armenian. See Hunchak Party, "May Day Manifesto," reprinted in K. Shakeri, ed., Asnad-e Tarikhi: Jonbesh-e Kargari, Sosiyal Democrasi va Komunisti-ye Iran (Historical documents: The Workers', Social Democratic, and Communist movement in Iran) (Florence: Mazdak Press, 1982), vol. 2, pp. 141-43. This volume has a useful collection of early May Day manifestos.

5. 5. Editorial, "May First," Haqiqat, 28 Apr. 1922. Reprinted in Shakeri, Asnad-e Tarikhi, vol. 7.

6. 6. A. Ovanessian, "Some Reminiscences of the Toilers' University in Moscow," Donya 9, no. 1 (Spring 1969): 97.

7. 7. British Legation to the Foreign Office, 19 Dec. 1928, PRO, FO 371/Persia 1929/34-13783.

8. 8. A. Ovanessian, "Reminiscences of the Communist Party in Khorasan," Donya 6, no. 3 (Autumn 1965): 81-82.

9. 9. A. Ovanessian, "Reminiscences of the Communist Party in Tehran," Donya 7, no. 3 (Autumn 1966): 116-19. See also idem, Safahat-e Chand, pp. 20-21.

10. 10. Communist Party, "May Day Manifesto (1928)," reprinted in Shakeri, Asnad-e Tarikhi, vol. 6, pp. 123-24.

11. 11. Ovanessian, "Reminiscences of the Communist Party in Tehran."

12. 12. Ovanessian, "Reminiscences of the Communist Party in Khorasan," Donya 6, no. 3 (Autumn 1965): 78. Local intellectuals, especially teachers, had unionized the carpet weavers with the help of adult literacy classes and football games. In fact, football was introduced in Iran in the 1920s through socialist and communist clubhouses.

13. 13. "Fifty Years of the Oil Workers' Struggle," Mardom 6, no. 7 (Sept.-Oct. 1964); L.P. Elwell-Sutton, Persian Oil (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1955), pp. 68-69; British Legation to the Foreign Office, "May Day Parade in Abadan," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1929/34-13783; Ovanessian, Safahat-e Chand, pp. 78-81.

14. 14. Foreign office to the British Legation in Tehran, 4 May 1929, PRO, FO 371/Persia 1929/34-13783.

15. 15. Lt. Col. Barrett to the Foreign Office, "Bolshevik Activity in the South," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1929/34-13783.

16. 16. Mani, Tarikhcheh-e, pp. 21-23.

17. 17. "Short History of Trade Unions in Isfahan," Rahbar, 18 June 1944.

18. 18. Ovanessian, Safahat-e Chand, p. 119.

19. 19. R. Namvar, Yadnameh-e Shahidan (Martyrs' memorial) (N.p.: Tudeh Publications, 1964), p. 11.

20. 20. T. Arani, "May Day Manifesto," reprinted in Iran-e Ma, 1 May 1946.

21. 21. For a survey of new factories, see W. Floor, Industrialization in Iran (Durham, England: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 1984).

22. 22. British Labor Attaché to the Foreign Office, "The Tudeh Party and the Iranian Trade Unions," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1947/ 34-61993.

23. 23. Zafar, 3 May 1946.

24. 24. A. Natefi, "May 1: Ardibehesht 11," Zafar, 6-18 May 1946.

25. 25. D. Wilber, Adventures in the Middle East (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1986), p. 121.

26. 26. Zafar, 14 May 1946.

27. 27. British Embassy to the Foreign Office, "Memorandum on Tudeh Activities against the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1946/34-52713.

28. 28. British Consul in Ahwaz to the Foreign Office, Report for June 1946, PRO, FO 371/Persia 34-52700.

29. 29. Colonel Underwood, "Report on Tudeh Activities in the Oil Industry," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1946/34-52714.

30. 30. British Cabinet, 4 July 1946, PRO, FO 371/Persia 1946/34-52706.

31. 31. For an excellent description of labor under the shah, see H. Ladjevardi, Labor Unions and Autocracy in Iran (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1985). See also T. Jalil, Workers Say No to the Shah (London: Campaign for the Restoration of Trade Union Rights in Iran, 1977); and A. Fischer, "The Labour Movement in Iran," Contemporary Review (Apr. 1977): 209-12.

32. 32. Kar, 1 May 1980.

33. 33. For the use of weddings as a cover, see Editorial, "May 1: Day of International Solidarity," Kar, 30 Apr. 1979.

34. 34. "Interview with Comrade Worker Hajj Tehrani," Kar, 30 Apr. 1981.

35. 35. Central Bank of Iran, Natayej-e Barresi-ye Kargahha-ye Bozorg-e Sanati-ye Keshvar dar Sal-e 1356 (The results of an investigation into large manufacturing plants in the country in the year 1977) (Tehran: Government Publishing House, 1978). I would like to thank Dr. Parvin Alizadeh for making this report available to me.

36. 36. N. Pakdaman, "Labor Unions," Ayandegan, 2 May 1979.

37. 37. For two excellent studies of urban migration, see F. Kazemi, Poverty and Revolution in Iran (New York: New York University Press, 1980); and P. Vieille, Psycho-sociologie du travail industriel en Iran (Paris: Institute of Sociological Research of Tehran, 1965).

38. 38. W. Bartsch, "Unemployment in Less Developed Countries: A Case Study of a Poor District of Tehran," International Development Review, 1975, no. 1, pp. 19-22.

39. 39. The government apparently toyed with the idea of having a Labor Day on the shah's birthday but eventually decided against

it. See "Interview with Comrade Worker Hajj Tehrani," Kar, 30 Apr. 1981.

40. 40. H. Hakimian, "Industrialization and the Standard of Living of the Working Class in Iran, 1960-79," Development and Change 19, no. 1 (Jan. 1988): 3-32.

41. 41. Ettela ^c at, 1 May 1974.

42. 42. Ettela ^c at, 1 May 1975.

43. 43. Talesh, 7 May 1975.

44. 44. Ettela ^c at, 1 May 1976.

45. 45. Ettela ^c at, 2 May 1977.

46. 46. E. Rouleau, "Les tensions politique en Iran," Le monde, 2 May 1979.

47. 47. A. Khomeini, May Day speech, Ettela ^c at, 2 May 1979.

48. 48. Azadi, 2 May 1979.

49. 49. Society of Tehran Clerics, "May Day Message," Ettela ^c at, 1 May 1979.

50. 50. Azadi, 2 May 1979.

51. 51. Rouleau, "Tensions politique en Iran."

52. 52. C. Goodey, "Workers' Councils in Iranian Factories," Merip 88 (June 1980): 3-9.

53. 53. Ibid.

54. 54. Rouleau, "Tensions politique en Iran."

55. 55. Special Correspondent, "Thousands Parade in Iran," New York Times, 2 May 1979.

56. 56. Ayandegan, 2 May 1979.

57. 57. For example, see the poems "May 1," in Mardom, 3 May 1979; "Forward," in Kar, 30 Apr. 1979; "This Is Our Festival," in Kar, 30 Apr. 1979; and "Workers' Day," in Ahangar, 1 May 1979.

58. 58. Ettela ^c at, 2 May 1979.

59. 59. N. Tabandeh, "Workers' Day," Ettela ^c at, 8 May 1980.

60. 60. A. Khomeini, May Day speech, Ettela ^c at, 3 May 1980.

61. 61. H. Musavi-Khoeiniha, speech outside the American Embassy, Jomhuri-ye Islami, 3 May 1980.

62. 62. Mardom, 3 May 1980.

63. 63. Mardom, 1 May 1980.

64. 64. Ettela ^c at, 30 Apr. 1980.

65. 65. For coverage of May Day 1982, see Kar, 6 May 1982. Pictures show that the Majority Fedayin filled Liberation Square. Hezbollahis attacked and injured ten, including a four-year-old girl.

66. 66. Ettela ^c at, 1 May 1983.

67. 67. H. Kamali, speech to Parliament, Iranshahr, 9 May 1982.

68. 68. "Programs for International Workers' Day," Kar va Kargar, 8 May 1990.

69. 69. A. Montazeri, May Day speech, Ettela ^c at, 1 May 1982. See also Ettela ^c at, 4 May 1985.

70. 70. Ettela ^c at, 4 May 1985.

71. 71. A. Khomeini, May Day speech, Iran Times, 2 May 1982.