1. Jinavarendra, literally the supreme Lord of the Jinas. The word "Jina" is derived from the root ji to conquer and means a spiritual victor. This is the designation of a monk who has attained omniscience (called kevalajnana , knowledge isolated from karmic bonds) but who is still alive and leads the normal life of a mendicant. In Jaina terminology such a person is also called a Kevalin (one who is endowed with kevalajnana) or an Arhat (one who is worthy of worship). Unlike the Theravada Buddhist Arhat, however, a Jaina Arhat must be an Omniscient Being. But not all Arhats engage in teaching; rather it is considered to be the prerogative of a few souls (comparable to the Bodhisattvas in Buddhism) like Mahavira who acquire, by practicing various perfections, those faculties that confer upon them the status of a Tirthankara (lit., one who builds a ford to cross the river of transmigration, samsara ). They are therefore called the Lords of the Arhats or Jinendra. In practice, however, the word "Jina" has been applied to the Tirthankaras as well, the followers of whom are called the Jainas. (For a discussion on the role of Tirthankaras, see JPP , pp. 29-35. For a comparison between a Bodhisattva and a Tirthankara, see Jaini, 1981.)

2. The word "moksa" is derived from the root muc , to release, and means emancipation of the soul from the state of embodiment. The initial stage of this state is reached when the soul becomes a Kevalin as described in note 1. The state of embodiment will, however, continue for the duration of the Kevalin's life. At his death the Kevalin's soul becomes totally free from all bonds of corporeality, and thus released it instantly rises like a flame to the summit of the universe ( loka ) and abides

there forever endowed with perfect purity and omniscience. Henceforth this soul will be called a Siddha, the Perfected Being. This is the final goal of a Jaina and is called moksa.

3. Niscela , (lit., "without clothes"). The terms Digambara and Svetambara discussed in note 1 are conspicuously absent both in the extant Svetambara canon and in the most ancient Digambara texts including those by Kundakunda. The canonical word that comes closest in meaning to the term Digambara is acelaka , "without clothes." Both sects agree that Mahavira after renouncing his household had adopted total nudity, but they do not agree on whether this practice was required of all those who followed his path. The Svetambara texts explicitly state that the mendicant followers of the Tirthankara Parsvanatha (c. tenth century B.C. ), the predecessor of Mahavira, wore clothes as did the majority of Mahavira's own disciples including his ganadharas (see JPP , p. 14). Thus while the Svetambaras do not dispute the fact of Mahavira's nudity they assert that the conduct of the clothed monks is in full accordance with his teachings and leads to the same goal of moksa. The Digambaras, however, as noted above, do not accept the authenticity of the Svetambara scripture and insist that the vow of nudity is a necessary, although certainly not the only, condition of Jaina mendicancy. They therefore do not recognize the claim of the Svetambara monks to the status of mendicancy and view them as heretics, apostates from the true mendicant path of Mahavira. The Svetambaras for their part maintain that although nudity was allowed during the time of Mahavira, its practice was proscribed for our degenerate times (see Chapter II, #23) and hence those who still adhere to nudity are in violation of the scriptural injunctions and cannot be considered the true mendicant followers of Mahavira.

4. Panipatra . A Digambara mendicant carries no begging bowl but instead uses his joined palms to receive morsels of food and hence is called a panipatra (lit., "one who uses his hands as a bowl"). He is allowed to eat or drink only once and only during the daytime, for which he visits a Jaina household and eats, while standing, the food that has been placed in his palms. In contrast a Svetambara monk must not eat or drink after sunset but may partake of food more than once during the day. Like his Buddhist counterpart, he must keep a set of wooden bowls for collecting food and water from different, and if necessary even from non-Jaina, households. He must bring the food gathered to his residence and consume it seated in the company of his fellow mendicants. The Digambaras have claimed that the habit of eating in one's palms greatly reduces the dependence on the householder and is a mark of true renunciation of all attachments to such worldly possessions as bowls and the like. A Digambara monk is, however, required to carry a gourd ( kamandalu ) for keeping water that may not be used for drinking but only for toilet purposes.

5. Amarga . Kundakunda does not specify the paths that he calls "the wrong paths"; but it is evident that he is referring here to those who wore clothes and carried begging bowls, a description that characterizes perfectly the Svetambara monks, in addition of course to the mendicants of the Brahmanical and Buddhist orders.

6. Linga . The word "linga" means an outward sign by which the identity of a mendicant's order is indicated. A staff ( danda ), for example, is the sign of a certain group of Brahmanical wanderers ( parivrajakas ), while the Buddhist monks ( bhiksus ) are recognized by their orange-colored robes ( raktapata ). In the case of

the Svetambara monks their white clothes ( svetapata ) and the whisk broom made of woollen tufts (called rajoharana ) would be considered the outward signs of their sect. By contrast a Digambara monk is totally naked and is not allowed anything whatsoever that could be designated as his distinctive mark. Kundakunda is suggesting here that those who carry such marks are not free from attachments to these possessions and hence are not true mendicants. It should be remembered, however, that even a Digambara monk carrries (in addition to the kamandalu) a small whisk broom made of molted peacock feathers (called pinchi ) by which he can gently remove insects from his seat. This can certainly be called a linga, but the Digambaras have contended that it is not indispensable and hence only his nudity would distinguish his renunciation from that of the other ascetics. For a discussion on the use of the word "linga" to indicate the emblem of a renouncer, see Olivelle (1986, pp. 26-29).

7. Parigraha . The literal meaning of parigraha is physical property, anything one possesses by right of ownership. A layman is said to possess his property, which includes his relatives and his wealth. When he renounces the household he is said to have renounced this parigraha. Aparigraha , the absence of such possession, is thus considered by all Jainas as a prerequisite of a Jaina monk and constitutes one of his most important mendicant vows. The term "parigraha," however, is not restricted only to the external possessions. In the scriptures it is applied also to passions such as anger, greed, and pride, and hence it is defined as murccha , delusion (of ownership), the true cause of attachment. Whether everything other than one's body (e.g., the clothes one wears or the bowls in which one collects the alms) is also a parigraha is a matter that will figure prominently in these debates (see Chapter II, #33-39).

8. Niragara . The word agara means a household; hence niragara is one without a home, namely, a renouncer. The context suggests that Kundakunda is using this term to demonstrate that the sacelaka monks have not truly renounced the household life and hence can only be called householders (sagara).

9. Mahavrata (lit., the great vows). These constitute the basic vows of both the Digambara and the Svetambara mendicants and are believed to have been laid down by Mahavira himself and appear in the first canonical text called the Acaranga-sutra . An aspirant seeking initiation ( diksa ) into the mendicant order utters the following vows ( Kalpasutra , Jacobi's trans. 1884, pp. 202-210) in front of his acarya:

10. These refer to the guarding (gupti) of the three doors of action: mind, speech, and body.

11. The word " samyata " (lit., restrained) is a synonym for a mendicant who is restrained by the five mahavratas. A layman who assumes the anuvratas is therefore called desasamyata (partly restrained).

12. Nirgrantha (lit., free from bonds). This is the designation by which originally the followers of Mahavira were known in ancient times, and it is attested to in the Buddhist scripture where Mahavira himself is referred to as Nigantha Nataputta (his clan name; see Malalasekera, 1960). The word " grantha " (derived from grath , to bind) refers to the internal and external parigrahas by which the soul is bound. Since for the Digambaras both the attachments as well as the objects of attachments are parigraha, even the clothes are binding (grantha). This is because freedom from clothes implies for him freedom from the residual sexual feelings, expressed by such words as shame or bashfulness, that one seeks to overcome by wearing clothes. In the opinion of the Digambaras a naked person need not necessarily be free from sexual desires, but anyone who wears clothes must be considered subject to such desires and hence not a true nirgrantha.

13. Sravaka (lit., the "hearer," i.e., one who listens to the sermons, a layman). Unlike the Buddhists who apply this term only to their Arhats, the Jainas use this term for a layman who has assumed the five anuvratas. A laywoman is similarly called a sravika . In the case of the mendicant his vows are total and hence there is no progression toward a higher set of vows but only the task of perfecting those that have been assumed at the beginning of his career. Since the layman's vows are only partial, the Jaina teachers have drawn a progressive path of widening the scope of his initial vows. This path is called pratima (lit., a statue in meditational posture) and consists of eleven stages through which a layman cultivates those spiritual observances that will bring him to the point of renouncing household life. These are

called (1) the stage of right views ( darsana ), (2) the stage of taking the vows ( vrata ), (3) the stage of practicing meditation ( samayika ), (4) the stage of keeping four fasts in a month ( posadha ), (5) the stage of continence by day ( ratribhakta ), (6) the stage of absolute continence ( brahmacarya ), (7) the stage of renouncing uncooked food ( sacitta-tyaga ), (8) the stage of abandonment of all professional activity ( arambha-tyaga ), (9) the stage of transferring publicly one's property to a son or other relative ( parigraha-tyaga ), (10) the stage of leaving the household and refraining from counseling in household matters ( anumati-tyaga ), and (11) the stage of not eating food especially prepared for oneself, that is, the stage of seeking alms through begging like a monk ( uddista-tyaga ). (For full details and variations in stages in the Digambara and the Svetambara texts, see Williams, 1963, pp. 172-181.) Very few sravakas or sravikas reach as far as the sixth stage of celibacy. But those who do so are encouraged to lead the life of a renunciant and give up their property and take their residence in a public place (called upasraya ) especially maintained for such purposes by the community. Among the Digambaras the person at the tenth stage is called a ksullaka , a novice. He wears three pieces of clothing and either collects his food in a bowl or may eat by invitation at a Jaina household. He is called here the avara or the "lower layman." At the eleventh stage he wears only a loincloth and does not use even the begging bowl. Instead he visits, only once a day, a Jaina household in the manner of a monk but takes the food he is offered in his joined palms, seated on a wooden plank. Traditionally he has been called an ailaka (probably an Apabhramsa form of the Skt. alpacelaka (one with little cloth), see JSK I, p. 499). He is not a monk yet, as he is still wearing a loincloth and thus cannot qualify to be called a nirgrantha or a Digambara. As stated by Kundakunda, his status is that of the highest ( utkrsta ) sravaka, the most advanced layman, fully qualified to renounce the world and assume the mahavratas of a monk.

14. Aryika (lit., a noble lady). An advanced laywoman (sravika) of the Digambara tradition on the eleventh pratima is called an arya or an aryika and also occasionally sramani and sadhvi words that indicate her exalted status as a nun. She wears a single article of clothing, namely a white cotton sari Despite this apparent "parigraha," at her initiation as an aryika she assumes the mahavratas of a monk, albeit in a conventional sense ( upacara ), since technically her status is still that of an "advanced laywoman" ( uttama-sravika ). In this respect her status is that of an ailaka, or probably a little better, since the latter's vows cannot even conventionally be called mahavratas but must bear the designation of anuvrata until he renounces his loincloth. Nudity is forbidden to women, and the Digambaras contend that since this is the highest stage of renunciation she may aspire to reach in the body of a woman her vows may be called mahavratas by courtesy (upacara; see Chapter IV, #11). Nudity for women is forbidden among the Svetambaras also; but since they do not require nudity even for men, their nuns are administered the same mahavratas as their monks and thus their status is technically speaking one of equality, as far as the vows are concerned.

15. Ksullika , a female novice. Kundakunda does not use this word, but the commentator Srutasagara supplies it in his gloss on the second line. She is the female counterpart of the ksullaka described above. In addition to her sari, she covers the upper part of her body with a long shawl that she removes while taking her meal (and thus conducts herself like an aryika for the duration of the meal).

16. A Tirthankara, as noted above, is a person who in addition to being an Omniscient Being is also a teacher and becomes the founder of a new community of mendicants. He is thus distinguished from the Arhats by certain extraordinary events that attend his conception, birth, and renunciation—such as the appearance of gods, the shower of wealth, and so forth. Since for the Digambaras there is no mendicancy without total nudity, all Tirthankaras must traverse the same mendicant path without exception. The Svetambara texts have claimed, however, that of the twenty-four Tirthankaras of our time, only the first and the last, namely Rsabha and Mahavira, had assumed the vow of nudity whereas the other twenty-two were clothed (see JPP , p. 14, n. 28). Kundakunda seems to be rejecting here such a heresy; or alternatively he may be alluding here to the case of Malli, the nineteenth Tirthankara, who is claimed by the Svetambaras as a female (see Chapter IV, #13, and Chapter VI, #77), an anathema to the Digambaras according to whom a woman does not even qualify to assume the total vows of a monk for the reasons so graphically described by Kundakunda in verses #7 and #8.

17. Pravrajya , lit. going forth from home (to become a mendicant). It should be noted that Kundakunda denies the mendicant ordination (pravrajya) to a woman, technically a sravika, not only on the grounds of her wearing clothes as in the case of the Svetambara monks but also and more fundamentally on the grounds of her biological gender. According to him a woman can never be totally free from harm (himsa) to the subtle forms of life that her body inevitably produces. Thus in Kundakunda's view it is not the possession of clothes as much as the himsa. inherent to her body that is the primary reason for a woman's inability to pursue the highest path of renunciation that alone can lead to moksa. It should be noted that although the Svetambaras also share the notion that a woman's body engenders subtle life-forms (see Chapter VI, #69), they do not thereby conclude that the unintentional destruction of these beings constitutes an obstacle to her assuming the mahavratas. As for the clothing, the Svetambaras do not regard it as a parigraha, whether for a monk or a nun, and hence it should not prevent her from attaining the same goal available to a monk.