1. Margot Light, The Soviet Theory of International Relations (Brighton, England: 1988), 27-28, 149-51; Allen Lynch, The Soviet Study of International Relations (New York: 1987), 8-18; V. Kubálková and A. A. Cruickshank, Marxism and International Relations (Oxford and New York: 1985), 76-77.

2. Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism : V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow: 1960-70), 22:266 (hereafter cited as CW ).

3. Lynch, Soviet Study of International Relations , 13.

4. Marx quoted in Fernando Claudin, The Communist Movement: From Comintern to Cominform (New York: 1975), 20.

5. Lenin quoted in Debo, Revolution and Survival , 408. Together, this work and Debo's Survival and Consolidation provide a full narrative of Soviet foreign policy from the October Revolution to the settlements of March 1921.

6. Piotr S. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917-1921 (Cambridge, Mass.: 1969), brought the diplomacy of the Soviet-Polish war into critical scholarship. Norman Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919-20 (New York: 1972), chronicles the military events. In "The Genesis of the Polish-Soviet War, 1919-20," European Studies Review 5 (1975): 47-67, and "The Missing Revolutionary War: The Polish Campaigns and the Retreat from Revolution in Soviet Russia, 1919-21," Soviet Studies 27 (1975): 178-95, Davies draws out the interpretative implications of his research, one of them being that the war was a Bolshevik revolutionary offensive by military means, something that Lenin strongly favored. Thomas C. Fiddick, in Russia's Retreat from Poland, 1920: From Permanent Revolution to Peaceful Coexistence (London: 1990), looks into the diversity of policies preferred and activities undertaken by the major Bolshevik actors in 1920. He does so with remarkable depth and clarity and denies that revolutionary war was Lenin's policy. Debo, in Survival and Consolidation , 408-412, agrees that Soviet policy in Poland was not a revolutionary crusade. Rather, as the Red Army drove back the Polish forces from the Ukraine, the Bolsheviks rethought their entire foreign policy. Lenin included, they abandoned the cautious and realistic diplomacy they had pursued since Brest-Litvosk. Instead, Debo speculates, they were attracted to the possibility of dividing up Polish territory with Germany and forcing Britain and France into an international conference to revise the peace settlement in Eastern Europe. James M. McCann, "Beyond the Bug: Soviet Historiography of the Soviet-Policy War of 1920,'' Soviet Studies 36 (1984): 475-93, analyzes Soviet scholarship prior to glasnost and also comments on Euro-American historiography. Vladlen Sirorkin, "The Riga Peace Treaty," International Affairs (Moscow) (1989:9): 128-43, extols Lenin's realism and his 1921 turnabout leading to the adoption of the Riga Treaty, NEE and "the high road" to world revolution, as opposed to Trotsky's notion of "direct revolution." A. Ya. Manusevkch, "Trudnyi put' k Rizhskomu mirnomu dogovoru 1921 g.," Novaia i noveishaia istoriia (1991:1): 19-43, reads like unreconstructed "old political thinking" despite the date of publication.

7. Fiddick, Russia's Retreat from Poland , 26-27.

8. Teddy J. Uldricks, "Russia and Europe: Diplomacy, Revolution, and Economic Development in the 1920s," International History Review 1 (1979): 55-83.

9. Major programmatic statements by Lenin on which the following analysis is based include: speech delivered to the Moscow Gubernia Conference of the RCP(B), 21 November 1920, Lenin, CW , 31: 408-415; report on concessions delivered to the RCP(B) group at the Eighth Congress of Soviets, 21 December 1920, Lenin, CW , 31: 463-86; report on the political work of the CC of the RCP(B) to the Tenth Party Congress, 8 March 1921, Lenin, CW , 32:179-83; report of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars to the Ninth Congress of Soviets, 23 December 1921, Lenin, CW , 33: 143-61.

10. Branko Lazitch and Milorad Drachkovitch, Lenin and the Comintern (Stanford, Calif.: 1972), 532-45.

11. Report to the Tenth Party Congress, 8 March 1921, Lenin, CW , 32: 180.

12. Trotsky quoted in E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917-1923 (New York: 1950-53), 3: 383.

13. Piero Melograni, Lenin and the Myth of World Revolution: Ideology and Reasons of State, 1917-1920 (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: 1989).

14. Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Lenin and the Comintern , 523, 546.

15. For the argument of M. M. Gorinov and S. V. Tasakunov that the New Economic Policy was forced on the party leadership by local Bolshevik chiefs, who, in confronting the realities of war-torn Russia and demands for food supplies from the cities, began working out tentative compromises with the peasantry as early as the autumn of 1918, see "Leninskaia kontseptsiia NEPa: stanovlenie i razvitie," Voprosy istorii (1990:4): 20-21.

16. Speech to the Plenary Session of the Moscow Soviet, 20 November 1922, Lenin, CW , 33: 441.

17. R. W. Davies, Soviet History in the Gorbachev Revolution , 119.

18. Samuel Farber, Before Stalinism: The Rise and Fall of Soviet Democracy (Oxford: 1990), 195-99.

19. Lenin quoted in N. V. Zagladin, Istoriia uspekhov i neudach sovetskoi diplomatii: politologicheskii aspekt (Moscow: 1990), 22-23.

20. Franklyn Griffiths, "Origins of Peaceful Coexistence: A Historical Note," Survey , no. 50 (January 1964): 195-201; Stephan Horak, "Lenin on Coexistence: A Chapter in Soviet Foreign Policy," Studies on the Soviet Union 3 (1964): 20-30; V. Kubálková and A. A. Cruickshank, "The Soviet Concept of Peaceful Coexistence: Some Theoretical and Semantic Problems," Australian Journal of Politics and History 24 (1978): 184-98; Warren Lerner, "The Historical Origins of the Soviet Doctrine of Peaceful Coexistence," Law and Contemporary Society 29 (1964): 865-70. Griffiths, 195-96, distinguishes carefully between "peaceful cohabitation'' ( mirnoe sozhitelstvo ) and "peaceful coexistence" ( mirnoe sosushchestvovanie ) as terms used by the party/state leadership from 1917 to 1921; the former, he states, "suggests more active participation," but the latter "is more stable, less transitory." Light, Soviet Theory of International Relations , 42, does not regard the distinction as significant. The practice I have adopted here is to use "peaceful coexistence" and to rely on the political context to make clear its various connotations. The official historiography of the CPSU did not credit Trotsky with first usage of the term, or with any other achievements as the first narkom for foreign affairs. The initial breakdown of this interpretation can be observed in A. V. Pantsov, "Brestskii mir," Voprosy istorii (1990:2): 60-79, which criticized the pre- glasnost line and used materials authored by Trotsky; the latter had been taboo up to that time.

21. Lenin and Chicherin quoted in Zagladin, Istoriia uspekhov i neudach , 50-51, and Griffiths, "Origins of Peaceful Coexistence," 197-98. For the negotiations with Estonia, see Debo, Survival and Consolidation , 124-46.

22. Fiddick, Russia's Retreat from Poland , 36-37, 41.

23. Ibid., 274.

24. V. G. Sirotkin, "Ot grazhdanskoi voiny k grazhdanskomu miru," in Inogo ne dano , ed. Iu. N. Afanaseva (Moscow: 1988), 371.

25. Report on Concessions at the Eighth Congress of Soviets, 21 December 1920, Lenin, CW , 31: 463-86; quotations on 471 and 480; report to the Tenth Party Congress, 8 March 1921, Lenin, CW , 32: 182-83.

26. Research into the articulation of NEP is discussed in V. P. Dmitrenko, "Certain Aspects of the New Economic Policy in Soviet Historical Scholarship of the 1960s," Soviet Studies in History 11 (1972-73): 224-25.

27. Quoted in Carr, Bolshevik Revolution , 3: 289.

28. Zinovii Sheinis, Maxim Litvinov , 153.

29. Anthony J. Heywood, "Trade or Isolation? Soviet Imports of Railway Equipment, 1920-1922," in Contact or Isolation? Soviet-Western Relations in the Interwar Period , ed. John Hiden and Aleksander Loit (Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia) 8 (Stockholm: 1991), 137-60; Christine A. White, "'Riches have Wings,' The Use of Russian Gold in Soviet Foreign Trade, 1918-1922," ibid., 117-36.

30. Roger Pethybridge, One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy (Oxford and New York: 1990), 94.

31. Charles M. Edmondson, "The Politics of Hunger: The Soviet Response to Famine, 1921," Soviet Studies 29 (1977): 506-518.

32. Lenin quoted in Edmondson, "Politics of Hunger," 516.

33. "Report by the RSFSR People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs for the Ninth Congress of Soviets, December 1921," International Affairs (Moscow) (1990:2): 138, 144.

34. Benjamin M. Weissman, Herbert Hoover and Famine Relief to Soviet Russia, 1921-1923 (Stanford, Calif.: 1974).

35. "Report by the RSFSR People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs for the Ninth Congress of Soviets, December 1921," 146.

36. Report by Lenin to the RCP(B) Group at the Eighth Congress of Soviets, 22 December 1920, Lenin, CW , 31: 493.

37. Pethybridge, One Step , 232-33.

38. John Quigley, The Soviet Foreign Trade Monopoly: Institutions and Laws (Columbus, Ohio: 1974), 3-36.

39. V. L. Genis, "Upriamyi narkom s Ilinki," in Otkryvaia novye stranitsy. Mezhdunarodnye voprosy: sobytiia i liudi , ed. A. A. Iskenderov (Moscow: 1989), 233.

40. Timothy Edward O'Connor, The Engineer of Revolution: L. B. Krasin and the Bolsheviks, 1870-1926 (Boulder, Colo.: 1992), 166-220.

41. Report by Lenin to the RCP(B) Group at the Eighth Congress of Soviets, 21 December 1920, Lenin, CW , 31: 463-86, quotations on 485-86.

42. Widely quoted; see Light, Soviet Theory of International Relations , 28.

43. V. G. Sirotkin, Vekhi otechestvennoi istorii (Moscow: 1991), 175. In true perestroika fashion, the work gives high marks to the pragmatists of early Soviet politics—Lenin, Krasin, Chicherin, the NKID in general, and, later, Radek and Trotsky—contrasting them with the doctrinaire Zinoviev, Stalin, and Dzerzhinskii. The author is a historian at the Diplomatic Academy of the Russian Foreign Ministry. During the glasnost era, he was the one who proposed that the secret protocols to the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact be sought out in the archives and published immediately.

44. "Resolution of the All Russian Central Executive Committee on the Report of the Work of the Russian Delegation at Genoa and the Treaty with Germany signed at Rapallo," 18 May 1922, printed in Henri Barbusse, ed., The Soviet Union and Peace: The Most Important of the Documents Issued by the Government of the USSR Concerning Peace and Disarmament from 1917 to 1929 (New York: [1929?]), 196.

45. On this point, see Kubálková and Cruickshank, Marxism and International Relations, 77 , and "Soviet Concept," 185.

46. Barbusse, The Soviet Union and Peace .

47. Nikita Khrushchev, Report of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to the 20th Party Congress , 14 February 1956 (Moscow: 1956), 38-46, and "On Peaceful Co-existence," Foreign Affairs 38 (1959): 1-18. On the sometimes subtle adaptations of "peaceful coexistence" during the Stalin, Khrushchev, and Brezhnev eras, see V. Kubálková and A. A. Cruickshank, Marxism-Leninism and Theory of International Relations (London and Boston: 1980), 148-54, 165-67; and Light, Soviet Theory of International Relations , 31-68.

48. This line was sustained with increasingly ponderous repetition after 1968. See, for instance, K. P. Ivanov, Leninism and Foreign Policy of the USSR (Moscow: ca. 1971); and Mikhail I. Trush, Soviet Foreign Policy: Early Years (Moscow: ca. 1970). Numerous articles on the topic appeared in International Affairs (Moscow), the last of them being published in June 1987: Nikolai Yermoshkin, "Peaceful Coexistence: A Universal Norm of International Relations," International Affairs (Moscow) (1987:6): 71-78. See also Vilnis Sipols, Soviet Peace Policy, 1917-1939 (Moscow: 1988).

49. A. E. Bovin, Mirnoe sosushchestovnie: istoriia, teoriia, politika (Moscow: 1988); A. O. Chubarian, Mirnoe sosushchestvovanie: teoriia i praktika (Moscow: 1976).

50. "Lenin's Legacy," International Affairs (Moscow) (1990:5): 71-74.

51. Zagladin, Istoriia uspekhov i neudach sovetskoi diplomatii , 11.

52. Barrington Moore, Jr., Soviet Politics; the Dilemma of Power: The Role of Ideas in Social Change (Cambridge, Mass.: 1959).

53. See, especially, Debo, Revolution and Survival and Survival and Consolidation; and Fiddick, Russia's Retreat from Poland .

54. The function of ideology in Soviet politics and foreign policy has received extensive coverage in European and American scholarship, much of it during the late 1960s. Opinion has varied widely. See the works discussed in Stephen White, "Ideology and Soviet Politics," in Ideology and Soviet Politics , ed. Stephen White and Alex Pravda (New York: 1988), 1-20, and in "Communist Ideology, Belief Systems, and Soviet Foreign Policy," in The Conduct of Soviet Foreign Policy , ed. Erik P. Hoffmann and Frederic J. Fleron, Jr. (2d ed.; New York: 1980), 91-97. Also Jonathan Harris, Ideology and International Politics: An Introduction to Soviet Analysis (Pittsburgh: 1970).

55. Graeme Gill, The Origins of the Stalinist Political System (Cambridge: 1990), 172-98; and "Ideology and System-Building: The Experience under Lenin and Stalin," in Ideology and Soviet Politics , 59-82.

56. For ideology and Soviet international relations doctrine, see Teddy J. Uldricks, Diplomacy and Ideology: The Origins of Soviet Foreign Relations, 1917-1930 (London and Beverly Hills, Calif.: 1979), 143-55.

57. For the inevitability of war and the dilemma of peaceful coexistence, see Frederic S. Burin, "The Communist Doctrine of the Inevitability of War," American Political Science Review 57 (1963): 334-54; and Light, Soviet Theory of International Relations , 209-215.