1. Money Land and Transportation folder, Family, DMA, BYU.

2. See Albert Habegger, Gender, Fantasy and Realism in American Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), chaps. 7, 11; Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), chap. 4; Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: A Study of the First Years of Our Time 1912-1917 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959), 48-50.

3. Quoted in Miles Orvell, The Real Thing: Imitation and Authenticity in American Culture, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 106.

4. See Habegger, Gender; Fantasy and Realism in American Literature , chap. 11; Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790-1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), chap. 5; Christine Gledhill, "Speculations on the Relationship between Soap Opera and Melodrama," Quarterly Review of Film and Video 14 (1992): 107-108; Neil Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History: The Halftone Effect," in Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 304-317.

5. Peter B. Hales, Silver Cities: The Photography of American Urbanization (Phila-

6. See Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978); Warren Susman, "The City in 'American Culture," in Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1984); Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , chap. 4; William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

7. See Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement , chap. 3; Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , chap. 7. According to Trachtenberg, the exhibition excluded African Americans and stereotyped other ethnic groups and women.

8. On fiction, see Eugene Arden, "The Evil City in American Fiction," New York History 35 (July 1954): 259-279.

9. Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Institutions in Nineteenth Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), 193.

10. George G. Foster, New York by Gaslight and Other Urban Sketches , edited and with an introduction by Stuart Blumin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 93.

11. David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1925: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 12.

12. A quote attributed to Gilles Deleuze in Craig Owens, "The Discourse of Others: Feminists and Postmodernism," in Hal Foster, ed., The Anti-Aesthetic (Port Townsend: Bay Press, 1983), 80.

13. Quoted in Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City , 78.

14. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1978). See also M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983).

15. Habegger, Gender, Fantasy and Realism in American Literature , preface, chap. 11; Daniel H. Borus, Writing Realism: Howells, James, and Norris in the Mass Market (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), chap. 5. See also Amy Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), Introduction; Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , chap. 6.

16. May, The End of American Innocence , 66.

17. Tompkins, Sensational Designs , chap. 5.

18. Orvell, The Real Thing , Introduction, part 2; Oscar G. Brockett and Robert R. Findlay, Century of Innovation: A History of European and American Theatre and Drama Since 1870 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 8. Orvell differentiates between the middle-class culture of imitation and the culture of authenticity , a modernist and intellectual response to the former.

19. Lise-Lone Marker, David Belasco: Naturalism in the American Theatre (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), chap. 6.

20. See Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism , Introduction.

21. Habegger, Gender, Fantasy and Realism in American Literature , 11.

22. Apparently, sketches about characters who commented on New York immigrant life were not uncommon. "This was about the same time that 'Bill' Young, prominent magazine authority of the day, discovered 'Chuck' Connors, Mayor of

23. Edward B. Watson, New York Then and Now: 88 Manhattan Sites Photographed in the Past and the Present (Mineola: Dover Publications, 1976), 16. Although this photo is dated 1893, the play was not, in fact, premiered in New York until 1896.

24. Unidentified clipping, in Victor Moore scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; The Cheat folder, Personal, Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. The star of the initial Broadway production in 1896 was Charles H. Hooper.

25. Edward W. Townsend, Chimmie Fadden, Major Max, and Other Stories (New York: Lovell, Coryell & Co., 1895), 72, 47-48.

26. Typed script of E. W. Townsend's stage play, in Chimmie Fadden folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU. Although the film script credits the play to Thomas, the film appears to be based on the Townsend play in the DeMille Archives.

27. See Kay Sloan, The Loud Silents: Origins of the Social Problem Film (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988).

28. Script of the film Chimmie Fadden , USC. Tom Gunning refers to this type of editing as contrast edit in D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative: The Early Years at Biograph (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 77.

29. Typed script of E. W. Townsend's stage play, in Chimmie Fadden folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

30. " Chimmie Fadden Out West," Variety Film Reviews, 1907-1980 (New York: Garland, 1983), 2 July 1915. See Douglas Gilbert, American Vaudeville: Its Life and Times (New York; Dover Publications, 1940); Joe Laurie, Jr., Vaudeville: From the Honky-tonks to the Palace (New York: Henry Holt, 1953); Albert F. McLean, Jr., American Vaudeville as Ritual (University of Kentucky Press, 1965); Robert W. Snyder, The Voice of the City: Vaudeville and Popular Culture in New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

31. Script of the film, Chimmie Fadden , USC.

32. "Garden—Chimmie Fadden," NYDM , 18 January 1896, 16.

33. "Chimmie Fadden," NYDM , 7 July 1915, 28.

34. W. Stephen Bush, "Chimmie Fadden," MPW , 10 July 1915, 322.

35. "More 'Chimmie Fadden' Plays with Moore Coming," MPN , 17 July 1915, 190. DeMille constructed his own filmography. Although only two Chimmie Fadden films were listed in it, a third title, "The Detective," was produced before the series was cancelled. (Lasky to Goldfish, 29 November 1915, DMA, BYU.)

36. Poster for Chimmie Fadden Out West, Chimmie Fadden Out West clipping file, AMPAS.

37. Significantly, Paul West, author of an early adaptation of the Townsend play for the first Chimmie Fadden film, was not credited, nor was Jeanie Macpherson, who worked on a number of scenarios for which DeMille alone is credited in bound copies of his scripts. Papers in the DeMille Archives indicate, however, that Macpher-

38. Story treatment of Chimmie Fadden Out West , in Chimmie Fadden Out West folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

39. "Put Chimmie Fadden into a Movie Play," New York Times , 22 November 1915, 12; "Chimmie Fadden Out West," NYDM , 4 December 1915, 281.

40. Lasky to Goldfish, 29 November 1915, DMA, BYU. Since the Townsend stories represented "a gold mine for ideas," Lasky was disappointed about having to abandon the series. Yet DeMille's figures show that receipts for Chimmie Fadden Out West were comparable to Chimmie Fadden , if not to box-office figures for Geraldine Farrar vehicles. See David Pierce, "Success with a Dollar Sign: Cost and Grosses for the Early Films of Cecil B. DeMille," in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine), 316.

41. See Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City 1877-1919 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). See also Michael Rogin, "Making America Home: Racial Masquerade and Ethnic Assimilation in the Transition to Talking Pictures," Journal of American History 79 (December 1992): 1050-1077.

42. Arthur Hornblow also wrote A History of the Theatre in America from Its Beginnings to the Present Time , 2 vols. (New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1919).

43. Colliers , 17 February 1912, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

44. See Barth, City People , chap. 3.

45. Toledo Blade , 15 July 1911; New York Telegraph , 29 January 1912; Chicago Record Herald , 13 February 1912; New York Review , 9 December 1909; New York Times , 10 December 1911; Green Book , May 1911, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

46. See Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History"; Charles Musser, "Rethinking Cinema's Beginnings: Images, Projection, and Editing" (Paper delivered at George Eastman House, Rochester, September, 1992).

47. John A. Kouwenhoven, Adventures of America 1857-1900: A Pictorial Record from Harper's Weekly (New York: Harper & Bros., 1938), 133. See also John Grafton, New York in the Nineteenth Century: 317 Engravings from Harper's Weekly and Other Contemporary Sources (Mineola: Dover Publications, 1977); Sally Lorensen Gross, Toward an Urban View: The Nineteenth-Century American City in Prints (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).

48. Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City , 17-18.

49. Barbara Novak, American Painting of the Nineteenth Century: Realism, Idealism, and the American Experience (New York: Praeger, 1969), 263.

50. William Innes Homer, Robert Henri and His Circle (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), chap. 8; Martin Green, New York. 1913: The Armory Show and the Paterson Strike Pageant (New York: Macmillan, 1988); James Lincoln Collier, The Rise of Selfishness in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 111-155; Robert M. Crunden, Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization 1889-1920 (New York: Basic Books, 1972), 102-115.

51. Alan Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs: Images as History: Matthew Brady to Walker Evans (New York: Hill & Wang, 1989), chap. 4.

52. Collier, The Rise of Selfishness in America , 12; Crunden, Ministers of Reform , 91.

53. Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1890; Mineola: Dover Publications, 1971). Interestingly, Riis titles one of his chapters "The Street Arab." See also Riis's The Making of an American (New York: Macmillan, 1916); Emma Louise Ware, Jacob Riis: Police Reporter, Reformer, Useful Citizen (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1939); James B. Lane, Jacob Riis and the American City (Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1974); Lewis Fried and John Fierst, Jacob A. Riis: A Reference Guide (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1977). See also note 59 below.

54. Script of Kindling , USC.

55. Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 13. See also Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985).

56. W. Stephen Bush, "Kindling," MPW , 24 July 1924, 655.

57. Eileen Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema 1907-1915 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990), 267. According to Bowser, critics saw a relationship between Griffith's lighting effects and the Photo-Secessionists.

58. Carol Schloss, In Visible Light: Photography and the American Writer 1840-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 107; Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs , chap. 4. On Stieglitz, see Sue Davidson Lowe, Stieglitz: A Memoir/Biography (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1983); Waldo Frank et al., eds., America and Alfred Stieglitz (New York: The Literary Guild, 1934); Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography from 1839 to the Present , rev. ed. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1982).

59. Maren Stange, Symbols of Ideal Life: Social Documentary Photography in America 1890-1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), chap. 1. Stange updated her revisionist interpretation of Riis in "Narrative Strategies in the Documentary Tradition" (Paper delivered at Columbia Film Seminar, New York, February 1992). See also Alexander Alland, Sr., Jacob A. Riis: Photographer and Citizen (Millerton: Aperture, 1974); Hales, Silver Cities , chap. 4; Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City , 71-75; Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , 126-128; Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History," 314; Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism , 46.

60. Script of Kindling , USC.

61. Grace Kingsley, "Where the Babies Come From," Photoplay , December 1915, 80.

62. Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars , 136-139.

63. Alland, Jacob A. Riis , 28.

64. Ibid., 152-153.

65. New York American , 7 December 1911; Bloomington Telegraph , 14 February 1912; Chicago Herald Record , 13 February 1912; New York Review , 9 December 1909; Vancouver World , 8 July 1912, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

66. "Kindling," MPN , 24 July 1915, 71; "Reviews of Current Productions," MPW , 24 July 1915, 665; " Kindling," Variety Film Reviews , 16 July 1915.

67. See Russell Merritt, "Nickelodeon Theaters 1905-1914: Building an Audience for the Movies," in Tino Balio, ed., The American Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), 72; Richard deCordova, Picture Personalities: The Emergence of the Star System in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).

68. Charles Kenyon, "Kindling," in Thomas H. Dickinson and Jack R. Crawford, eds., Contemporary Plays: Sixteen Plays from the Recent Drama of England and America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1925), 260.

69. Script of Kindling , USC.

70. Boston Transcript , 16 November 1911, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

71. Script of Kindling , USC.

72. Conversation with James V. D'Arc, November 1993. I am grateful to James Card for a screening of this film.

73. " Kindling," Variety Film Reviews , 16 July 1915.

74. Script of Kindling , USC.

75. Kevin Brownlow offers a more progressive interpretation of this film in Behind the Mask of Innocence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 285-287.

76. Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , 21-22.

77. Nina Baym, Woman's Fiction: A Guide to Novels by and about Women in America, 1820-1870 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978), 45; Susman, "The City in American Culture," 245.

78. See Ruth Perlmutter, "For God, Country, and Whoopee," Film Comment 12 (January/February 1976): 24-28.

79. Script of The Dream Girl , USC.

80. See Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will ; Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh ; Cohen, Making a New Deal ; Peiss, Cheap Amusements ; Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars .