1. Thomas Schelling, Micromotives and Macrobehavior (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978).

2. Marian Wright Edelman, Families in Peril: An Agenda for Social Change (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), 27. A study published by the Center on Budget and Public Priorities concluded that the number of poor families with children grew 35 percent between 1979 and 1987; see the New York Times, 8 September 1987, B7.

3. These figures come from Alvin L. Schorr, Common Decency: Domestic Policies After Reagan (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 79.

4. W. Norton Grubb and Marvin Lazerson, Broken Promises: How Americans Fail Their Children (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 52.

5. See George Masnick and Mary Jo Bane, The Nation's Families: 1960-1990 (Boston: Auburn House, 1980), 47-50; and Sar A. Levitan, Richard S. Belous, and Frank Gallo, What's Happening to the American Family? Tensions, Hopes, Realities, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 107-24. A clear presentation of 1980 census figures is contained in James A. Sweet and Larry L. Bumpers, American Families and Households (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1987).

6. U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families, Children, Youth, and Families, 1983; cited in Eric R. Kingson, Barbara A. Hirshorn, and John M. Cormann, Ties That Bind: The Interdependence of Generations (Washington, D.C.: Seven Locks Press, 1986), 119. See also Harrell R. Rodgers, Jr., Poor Women, Poor Families: The Economic Plight of America's Femaleheaded Households (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1986).

7. Martha S. Hill, "Trends in the Economic Situation of U.S. Families and Children: 1970-1980," in American Families and the Economy, ed. Richard R. Nelson and Felicity Skidmore (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1983), 48. break

8. Phyllis Moen, Edward L. Kain, and Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Economic Conditions and Family Life," in Nelson and Skidmore, American Families, 236.

9. Ibid., 244.

10. The material cited in this paragraph comes from Janet S. Hansen, "Student Loans: Are They Overburdening a Generation?" (Washington, D.C.: Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Congress, December 1986); quotes pp. 21, 37.

11. Judith Gussler and L. Eugene Arnold, "Feeding Patterns and the Changing Family," in Parents, Children, and Change, ed. L. Eugene Arnold (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1985), 117.

12. National Commission on Youth, The Transition of Youth to Adulthood (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1980), 186; cited in Jerold M. Starr, "American Youth in the 1980s," Youth and Society 17 (June 1986): 342.

13. Starr, "American Youth," 340. A further study sponsored by the Center for Disease Control reported that between 1970 and 1980 the suicide rate among men aged between fifteen and twenty-four increased from 13.5 per 100,000 population to 20.2; the increase in female suicide was negligible. See "Youth Suicide is Rising," New York Times, 22 February 1987, pt. 1, p. 28.

14. Emile Durkheim, Suicide (New York: Free Press, 1966), 215.

15. Starr, "American Youth."

16. T. R. Forstenzer, "Tomorrow in North America: Youth Between the American Dream and Reality," in Youth in the 1980s (New York: UNESCO Press, 1981), 65-86. On political knowledge in general, see W. Russell Neuman, The Paradox of Mass Politics: Knowledge and Opinion in the American Electorate (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 14-25.

17. Raymond A. Eve and Francis B. Harrold, "Creationism, Cult Archaeology, and Other Pseudoscientific Beliefs," Youth and Society 17 (June 1986): 396-421.

18. One study, however, did not find that 1982 students were more pessimistic toward the future; see Guy J. Manaster, Donald L. Greer, and Douglas A. Kleiber, "Youth's Outlook on the Future III," Youth and Society 17 (September 1985): 97-112.

19. Angela A. Aidala and Cathy Stein Greenblatt, "Changes in Moral Judgement Among Student Populations, 1929-83," Youth and Society 17 (March 1986): 221-35.

20. American Council on Education, The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 1987 (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA, 1988). College officials, however, have begun to talk of a rebirth of voluntarism and idealistic spirit on campus at the end of the 1980s; see the New York Times, 3 December 1986, 24.

21. Pamela Doty, "Family Care of the Elderly: The Role of Public Policy," Milbank Quarterly 64, no. 1 (1986): 34-75.

22. Andrew Cherlin and Frank F. Furstenberg, The New American Grandparent: A Place in the Family, a Life Apart (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 110. The continue

relationship between proximity and care giving is discussed in Judith A. Hays, "Aging and Family Resources: Availability and Proximity of Kin," The Gerontologist 24 (April 1984): 149-53.

23. Sarah H. Matthews and Jetse Sprey, "The Impact of Divorce on Grandparenthood," The Gerontologist 24 (February 1984): 41-47. See also Cherlin and Furstenberg, New American Grandparent, 136-64.

24. William Rakowski and Noreen M. Clark, "Future Outlook, Caregiving, and Care-receiving in the Family Context," The Gerontologist 25 (December 1985): 618-23.

25. For evidence that reciprocity matters to relations between generations, see Amy Horwitz and Lois W. Shindelman, "Reciprocity and Affection: Past Influences on Current Caregiving," Journal of Gerontological Social Work 5 (Spring 1983): 5-20; and Peggy Hawley and John D. Chamley, "Older Person's Perceptions of the Quality of Their Human Support Systems," Aging and Society 6 (September 1986): 295-312.

26. Doty, "Family Care of the Elderly," 39.

27. Henry J. Pratt, The Gray Lobby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).

28. Some of the pitfalls of the interest-group strategy are discussed in Fernando Torres-Gil and Jon Pynoos, "Long-Term Care Policy and Interest Group Struggles," The Gerontologist 26 (October 1986): 488-95.

29. Phillip Longman, Born to Pay: The New Politics of Aging in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), 27-32.

30. Daniel Yankelovich, New Rules: Searching for Self-fulfillment in a World Turned Upside Down (New York: Random House, 1981), 104; cited in Daniel Callahan, Setting Limits: Medical Goals in an Aging Society (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 86.

31. Callahan, Setting Limits, 30.

32. Annette Baier, "The Rights of Past and Future Generations," in Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, ed. Ernest Partridge (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1981), 177.

33. "Pressure on time, like pressure on geographic or social space, adds to the consumption activities that have to be undertaken as means to other forms of consumption" (Fred Hirsch, The Social Limits to Growth [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978], 75).

34. Recognition of the importance of the third sector has been stimulated by a series of studies out of Yale University concerning "nonprofit" activities. See, e.g., Paul J. DiMaggio, ed., Non-Profit Enterprise in the Arts: Studies in Mission and Constraint (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); and Walter W. Powell, ed., The Non-Profit Sector: A Research Handbook (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987).

35. Commission on Private Philanthropy and Public Needs, Giving in America: Toward a Stronger Voluntary Sector (Washington, D.C.: Filer Commission, 1975), 11; hereafter cited as Filer Commission, Giving . break

36. There are to my knowledge only a few serious efforts to discuss the political theory of the third sector and to contrast it to the free market liberalism of economics: Franklin I. Gamwell, Beyond Preference: Liberal Theories of Independent Associations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); and Susan A. Ostrander, Stuart Longton, and Jon Van Til, eds., Shifting the Debate: Public/Private Sector Relations in the Modern Welfare State (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1987).

37. Virginia Ann Hodgkinson and Murray A. Weitzman, Dimensions of the Independent Sector (Washington, D.C.: Independent Sector, 1986).

38. Waldemar Nielsen, The Endangered Sector (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), 10; Ralph L. Nelson, "Private Giving in the American Economy," Filer Commission Research Papers (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Treasury Department, 1977), 115-55; and Charles T. Clotfelter, Federal Tax Policy and Charitable Giving (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 17-18.

39. On the antipathy toward government as a source of altruistic inclinations in the Reagan years, see Renee A. Berger, "Private-Sector Initiatives in the Reagan Era: New Actors Rework an Old Theme," in The Reagan Presidency and the Governing of America, ed. Lester M. Salamon and Michael S. Lund (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1985), 181-211.

40. Wendy Kaminer, Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1984), 15-16; and Barry Kosmin, "The Political Economy of Gender in Jewish Federations" (Paper presented at the conference "Women and Philanthropy," CUNY Graduate Center, June 1987).

41. Alan Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition: The Essays of Alan Pifer (New York: The Foundation Center, 1984), 231.

42. Filer Commission, Giving, 56-57.

43. Donald I. Warren and Rachelle B. Warren, "U.S. National Patterns of Problem Coping Networks," Journal of Voluntary Action Research 14 (April-September 1985): 31-53.

44. Hodgkinson and Weitzman, Dimensions of the Independent Sector, 74.

45. See the interview with Virginia Hodgkinson reported in Fund Raising Management 17 (August 1986): 68.

46. Patricia Klobus Edwards and Ann DeWitt Watts, "Volunteerism in Human Service Organizations: Trends and Prospects," Journal of Applied Social Sciences 7 (Spring-Summer 1983): 225-45. See also Arlene Kaplan Daniels, Invisible Careers: Women Civic Leaders From the Volunteer World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

47. Vicki R. Schram and Marilyn M. Dunsing, "Influences on Married Women's Volunteer Work Participation," Journal of Consumer Research 7 (March 1981): 372-79.

48. Patricia Klobus Edwards, John N. Edwards, and Ann DeWitt Watts, "Women, Work, and Social Participation," Journal of Voluntary Action Research 13 continue

(January-March 1984): 17; and Barbara Hargrove, Jean Miller Schmidt, and Sheila Greeve Davaney, "Religion and the Changing Role of Women," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 480 (July 1985): 117-31.

49. Edwards, Edwards, and Watts, "Women, Work, and Social Participation."

50. The substantial role played by women in the voluntary aspects of American associational life is brought out in Anne Firor Scott, "Women's Voluntary Associations: From Philanthropy to Reform" (Paper presented at the conference "Women and Philanthropy," CUNY Graduate Center, June 1987).

51. Ronald S. Burt, "Corporate Philanthropy as a Cooptive Relationship," Social Forces 62 (December 1983): 419-49. A Study of business philanthropy more based on economic models, especially transaction costs economics, than my own approach is Joseph Galaskiewicz, The Social Organization of an Urban Grants Economy (New York: Academic Press, 1985).

52. See Lester M. Salamon and Alan J. Abramson, The Federal Budget and the Non-Profit Sector (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1982). See also Lester Salamon, "Non-Profit Organizations: The Lost Opportunity," in The Reagan Record: An Assessment of America's Changing Domestic Priorities, ed. John C. Palmer and Isabel V. Sawhill (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1984), 261-68.

53. The Conference Board, Annual Survey of Corporate Contributions (New York: The Conference Board, 1980-85).

54. The figures and quotes in this paragraph all come from Kathleen Teltsch, "Corporate Pressures Slowing Gifts to Charity," New York Times, 8 July 1987, 1.

55. Hervé Varenne, Americans Together: Structured Diversity in a Midwestern Town (New York: Teachers College Press, 1977), 32. Had Varenne researched the matter further, he would have discovered that the American Farm Bureau Federation is the prototype of private agencies serving public functions. The lack of public interest that he found in its affairs, therefore, may be due to its quasi-official relationship to the state. See Grant McConnell, The Decline of Agrarian Democracy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959).

56. Michel Crozier, The Trouble with America: Why the System Is Breaking Down (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 85.

57. Richard M. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves: On Culture and Politics in the United States (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984).

58. Isabel Wilkerson, "Code of Highway: Finders Keepers," New York Times, 24 November 1987, A16.

59. "From Watergate, Training in Ethics," New York Times, 21 March 1988, A16.

60. Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption (London: Penguin Books, 1980).

61. On apprenticeship, see William J. Rorabaugh, The Craft Apprenticeship: From Franklin to the Machine Age in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); on ethnic family ties, see Pyong Gap Min, Ethnic Business Enterprise: Korean Small Business in Atlanta (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1988), 91-95.

62. T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization," in T. J. Jackson continue

Lears and Richard Wrightman Fox, The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983), 3-38, esp. p. 20.

63. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 89-94.

64. Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of Advertising and Its Creators (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 316-17.

65. Tom Engelhardt, ''Children's Television: The Shortcake Strategy," in Watching Television: A Pantheon Guide to Popular Culture, ed. Todd Gitlin (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 68-110.

66. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves, 124.

67. Quoted in Fox, Mirror Makers, 326.

68. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 206-34.

69. Michael Schudson, Advertising: The Uneasy Persuasion (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 221.

70. See, e.g., Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society: An Analysis of Western Systems of Power (New York: Basic Books, 1969), 215-18.

71. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York: Basic Books, 1973); see also James Clifford and George Marcus, Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986).

72. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves, 134.

73. Varda Langholz Leymore, Hidden Myth: Structure and Symbol in Advertising (New York: Basic Books, 1975); cited in Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves, 140-41.

74. Stanley Hauerwas, A Community of Character: Toward a Constructive Christian Social Ethic (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 84.

75. David L. Gutmann, Reclaimed Powers: Towards a New Psychology of Men and Women in Later Life (New York: Basic Books, 1987), esp. 246-49.

76. For a discussion of some of these issues, see Norman Daniels, Am I My Parents' Keeper? An Essay on Justice Between the Young and the Old (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

77. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 140, 288.

78. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952), 287.

79. Joseph Addison, in The Spectator, no. 381 (20 August 1714); cited in Robert E. Goodin, Protecting the Vulnerable: A Reanalysis of Our Social Responsibilities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 177.

80. Thomas Schwartz, "Obligations to Posterity," in Obligations to Future Generations, ed. R. I. Sikora and Brian Barry (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978), 3-13.

81. See, e.g., Gary S. Becker, "Altruism, Egoism, and Genetic Fitness," Journal continue

of Economic Literature 14 (September 1976): 817-26; and Howard Margolis, Selfishness, Altruism, and Rationality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). The essays in Edmund S. Phelps, Altruism, Morality, and Economic Theory (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975), especially Phelps's introduction, view some degree of altruism, independent of economic motivations, as necessary for the social order. An effort to use economic methods to increase altruism is David Collard, Altruism and Economy: A Study in Non-selfish Economics (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1978).

82. Marcel Mauss, The Gift (New York: W.W. Norton, 1967); Richard Titmuss, The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy (New York: Pantheon Books, 1971); Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine, 1972); and Lewis Hyde, The Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Poetry (New York: Vintage Books, 1983).

83. See Roberta G. Simmons, Susan D. Klein, and Richard L. Simmons, Gift of Life: The Social and Psychological Impact of Organ Transplantation (New York: John Wiley, 1977).

84. E.g., Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987).