1. NYT , March 26, 1949, p. 18.

2. New York Herald Tribune , March 26, 1949, pp. 1, 5. NYT , March 26, 1949, p. 3; March 27, 1949, p. 45. "Red Visitors Cause Rumpus," Life 26:39-43, April 4, 1949, p. 40. Sidney Hook, "The Communist Peace Offensive," Partisan Review 51:692-711, double fiftieth anniversary issue, 1984-85, pp. 702-3. I have given greater weight to the contemporary reports of the conference than to later recollections of it by the principals.

3. In this paragraph I have benefited from the perceptive work of Giles Gunn, The Culture of Criticism and the Criticism of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 5, 20-25, 36.

4. John Gross, The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters (New York: Macmillan, 1969), shows the importance of reviewing to the tradition in Britain.

5. See Perry Miller, ed., The Transcendentalists (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard, 1950); and Joseph Blau, ed., Social Theories of Jacksonian Democracy (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954).

6. See Edmund Wilson, The Shock of Recognition (New York: Doubleday, 1943).

7. John Tomsich, A Genteel Endeavor (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1971).

8. Van Wyck Brooks, "The Literary Life," in Harold Stearns, ed., Civilization in the United States (1922; reprint, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1971), p. 196.

9. For the letters tradition early in the century see Henry May, The End of American Innocence (New York: Knopf, 1959).

10. Brooks, "The Literary Life," pp. 190, 196.

11. Brooks, "The Literary Life," p. 191.

12. Lionel Trilling, Alfred Kazin, and Irving Howe all wrote essays about Wilson's influence and leadership.

13. Nathan Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).

14. NYT , March 29, 1989, p. D25.

15. See the biographical sketches on Schumpeter and Simons in the Dictionary of American Biography , supplement 4. Schumpeter's influence is apparent on the work of Daniel Bell, and Frank Knight had an influence on Edward Shils at the University of Chicago. Edward Shils, Center and Periphery: Essay in Macrosociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), p. xxix.

16. The term Trotskyist has both a precise and an imprecise meaning, both of which are used by figures in this study. The term originally denoted a follower of the socialist principles advanced by Trotsky. But since Trotsky was Stalin's main adversary, Stalinists came to use Trotskyist as a derisive epithet for any socialist who did not follow Stalin. Just as the Stalinists disparaged most of their enemies on the left as Trotskyists, so the term often became a general label used by the left to refer to independent leftists.

17. For histories of the group in the pre-World War II period, see Alexander Bloom, Prodigal Sons (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Terry Cooney, The Rise of the New York Intellectuals (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); Alan Wald, The New York Intellectuals (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Stephen Longstaff, "The New York Intellectuals: A Study of Particularism and Universalism in American High Culture," Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1978; James Burkhart Gilbert, Writers and Partisans (New York: Wiley, 1968); Daniel Aaron, Writers on the Left (New York: Harcourt, Brace, World, 1961); John Patrick Diggins, Up From Communism (New York: Harper and Row, 1975); and the memoirs and autobiographies by members of the New York group, especially those by Podhoretz, Kazin, Howe, Barrett, Phillips, Bell, and Mary McCarthy.

18. Several authors have created "family trees" of the New York intellectuals; see Stephen Longstaff, "The New York Family," Queen's Quarterly 83(4):556-73, Winter 1976, p. 573. Also Daniel Bell, The Winding Passage (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 127-29.

19. The following is a rough list of the New York intellectuals, arranged alphabetically. As there are legitimate disagreements over the membership of the New York group (some of those often included protest that no "group" even exists), this list is meant to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Some of these figures are central to the group; others are more peripheral. An asterisk indicates a European intellectual who influenced the members' outlook, contributed to the group's publications, or took part in their organizations or conferences.

Daniel Aaron

Lionel Abel

Hannah Arendt

^* Raymond Aron

William Barrett

David Bazelon

Daniel Bell

Saul Bellow

^* Nicola Chiaromonte

Elliot Cohen

Lewis Coser

Midge Decter

Theodore Draper

F. W. Dupee

Jason Epstein

Joseph Epstein

Lewis Feuer

Leslie Fiedler

Emanuel Geltman

Nathan Glazer

Paul Goodman

Clement Greenberg

Elizabeth Hardwick

Michael Harrington

Murray Hausknecht

Robert Heilbroner

Gertrude Himmelfarb

Richard Hofstadter

Sidney Hook

Irving Howe

Alfred Kazin

^* Arthur Koestler

Hilton Kramer

Irving Kristol

Melvin Lasky

Robert Lekachman

Seymour Martin Lipset

Mary McCarthy

Dwight Macdonald

Norman Mailer

C. Wright Mills

Reinhold Niebuhr

^* George Orwell

Henry Pachter

William Phillips

Stanley Plastrik

Norman Podhoretz

Philip Rahv

David Riesman

Bernard Rosenberg

Harold Rosenberg

Isaac Rosenfeld

Meyer Schapiro

Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.

Delmore Schwartz

Philip Selznick

Edward Shils

^* Ignazio Silone

Susan Sontag

^* Stephen Spender

Diana Trilling

Lionel Trilling

Michael Walzer

Robert Warshow

Dennis Wrong

20. Talcott Parsons, "'The Intellectual': A Social Role Category," in Philip Rieff, ed., On Intellectuals: Theoretical Studies/Case Studies (New York: Doubleday, 1969), pp. 3-26; and Robert Brym, Intellectuals and Politics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1980), p. 12.

21. For this position see J. P. Nettl, "Ideas, Intellectuals, and Structures of Dissent," in Rieff, ed., On Intellectuals , pp. 57-134.

22. Edward Shils, The Intellectuals and the Powers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), pp. 16-18; and Shils, Center and Periphery: Essays in Macrosociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), part two. Also see Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1978), pp. 146-71; and Bell, The Winding Passage , pp. 324-54.

23. Quoted in Adam Gussow, "Bohemia Revisited: Malcolm Cowley, Jack Kerouac, and On the Road ," Georgia Review 38(2):291-311, Summer 1984, p. 299. Also see Malcolm Cowley, And I Worked at the Writer's Trade (New York: Viking, 1978), pp. 201-3.

24. Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas (New York: Free Press, 1965), esp. pp. vii-xii; Harold Rosenberg, "The Intellectual and the Future," Discovering the Present (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), pp. 187, 190-95; Irving Howe, "A Mind's Turnings," A World More Attractive (New York: Horizon, 1963), pp. 283-87. Even some centrists in the group, such as Richard Hofstadter, thought of the intellectual as a questioner. See Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1963), pp. 25-33.

25. There are at least two ways to define the term ideology . As Raymond Williams has pointed out, the earlier meaning was used by Napoleon, in Williams's words, to signify "abstract, impractical or fanatical theory." This first meaning defined ideology as impractical, overheated, and false thinking. The later meaning was used by Marx to denote a false consciousness, an inverted view of reality, an illusion that a class harbors about itself and its goals. The New York intellectuals employed the first definition. They used ideology to mean an outlook that was utopian and abstract rather than practical, fanatically committed to an ideal rather than rationally analytical, an absolute vision that embodied total solutions rather than tentative hypotheses. Raymond Williams, Keywords (New York: Oxford, 1983), pp. 154-56.

26. Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination (1950; reprint, New York: Harcourt, 1978), pp. 8-9.

27. Alfred Kazin, Contemporaries (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), pp. 500-501.

28. The New York Times published a partial list of official sponsors of the Waldorf Conference, most of whom had merely given their names as an endorsement and had no active role in the conference. Some of the better-known names on the list include: Leonard Bernstein, Marlon Brando, Charlie Chaplin, Lee J. Cobb, Aaron Copland, W.E.B. DuBois, Albert Einstein, Howard Fast, Jose Ferrer, Will Geer, Jack Guilford, Dashiell Hammett, Lillian Hellman, Leo Huberman, Langston Hughes, Matthew Josephson, Albert E. Kahn, Garson Kanin, Corliss Lamont, Ring Lardner, Jr., Helen Lynd, Robert Lynd, Carey McWilliams, Norman Mailer, Thomas Mann, F. O. Matthiessen, Arthur Miller, Mitchell Miller, Kenneth Murdock, Clifford Odets, Eugene Ormandy, Dorothy Parker, Linus Pauling, Paul Robeson, Budd Schulberg, Artie Shaw, Paul Sweezy, Studs Terkel, Dalton Trumbo, Rexford Tugwell, Henry Wallace, Sam Wanamaker, and Frank Lloyd Wright. For the complete list see NYT , March 24, 1949, p. 4.

29. NYT , March 22, 1949, p. 1; March 24, 1949, pp. 1, 3. For other similar incidences see NYT , March 25, 1949, p. 19; March 26, 1949, pp. 1, 3.

30. NYT , March 30, 1949, p. 1.

31. Letter from Shapley to Hannah Dorner, February 11, 1949. Har-

low Shapley Papers, Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, Mass., box 10b, HD file. Used by permission of the Harvard University Archives.

32. John P. Rossi, "Farewell to Fellow Traveling: The Waldorf Peace Conference of March 1949," Continuity 10:1-31, Spring 1985, pp. 6-7, 9.

33. NYT , March 16, 1949, p. 17; March 17, 1949, pp. 1, 4; March 21, 1949, p. 4.

34. NYT , March 22, 1949, p. 1; March 23, 1949, pp. 19, 1, 18. "Everybody Wars Over It," Newsweek , April 4, 1949, p. 19.

35. NYT , March 24, 1949, p. 2; March 23, 1949, p. 1.

36. Dwight Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," Politics 6(1): 32A-32D, Winter 1949, p. 32D. Macdonald was referring to Frederick Schuman, professor of political science at Williams College and a participant in the conference.

37. Letter from Sidney Hook to Harlow Shapley, February 25, 1949. Shapley Papers, box 10c, "peace conference" file. There was considerably more maneuvering between Hook and the Program Committee than this summary suggests; see Neil Jumonville, "The Gray Dawn: The New York Intellectuals and the Function of Criticism," Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1986.

38. Howard Fast, "Cultural Forces Rally Against the Warmakers," Political Affairs 28:29-38, May 1949, p. 33.

39. Letter from Shapley to Emil Lengyel, March 12, 1949. Shapley Papers, box 10c, "peace conference" file. Also see NYT , March 20, 1949, p. 4. Irving Howe, "The Culture Conference," Partisan Review 16:505-11, May 1949, p. 510. Hook, "Peace Offensive,'' p. 693.

40. NYT , March 20, 1949, p. 4.

41. Contemporary Authors , vols. 9-12, first revision (Detroit: Gale Research, 1974), pp. 396-97. Current Biography , 1952 yearbook (New York: H. H. Wilson, 1952), pp. 269-70. Sidney Hook, Political Power and Personal Freedom (New York: Criterion, 1959), p. xv.

42. Milton R. Konvitz, "Sidney Hook: Philosopher of Freedom," in Paul Kurtz, ed., Sidney Hook and the Contemporary World (New York: John Day, 1968), pp. 18-19. Sidney Hook, "My Running Debate With Einstein," Commentary , 74:37-52, July 1982, p. 48.

43. Current Biography , pp. 269-70.

44. Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (New York: Harcourt, 1976), pp. 283-85.

45. Sidney Hook, "The Philosophy of Morris R. Cohen," The New Republic 63:278-81, July 23, 1930, p. 278.

46. Hook, "Philosophy of Morris R. Cohen," p. 278. Konvitz, "Sidney Hook," pp. 18-19. See also the useful entry on Cohen in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy .

47. Contemporary Authors , p. 396. Current Biography , pp. 269-70. Konvitz, "Sidney Hook," p. 19.

48. Sidney Hook, "Breaking With the Communists—A Memoir," Commentary 77:47-53, February 1984.

49. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1916). Lewis S. Feuer, "From Ideology to Philosophy: Sidney Hook's Writings on Marxism," in Kurtz, ed., Sidney Hook and the Contemporary World , pp. 38-44. Marx and Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy , Lewis Feuer, ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1959), p. 245.

50. Richard Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams (New York: Harper, 1973), pp. 149, 133-40.

51. John Dewey, Characters and Events , Joseph Ratner, ed. (New York: Holt, 1929), 1:74.

52. John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy (1920; reprint, Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), chap. 8.

53. John Dewey, Individualism Old and New (New York: Minton, Balch, 1930), pp. 15-16, 32-36, 61, 72, and 115; Alfonso Damico, Individuality and Community: The Social and Political Thought of John Dewey (Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1978), p. 70.

54. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (1916; reprint, New York: Free Press, 1944), p. 99.

55. Dewey, Characters and Events , 2:849, 851.

56. Kurtz, editor's preface, Sidney Hook and the Contemporary World . Raziel Abelson, "Hook's Ethical Theory, Pure and Impure," in Kurtz, ed., Sidney Hook and the Contemporary World , pp. 203-4. Konvitz, "Sidney Hook," pp. 20, 22.

57. Dewey, Characters and Events , 2:731-32.

58. Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy , chap. 8.

59. Hook's article appeared in The Social Frontier , February 1938, and is quoted in Feuer, "From Ideology to Philosophy," p. 50.

60. For a discussion of philosophical absolutism and Hook's opposition to it, see Edward Purcell, Jr., The Crisis of Democratic Theory (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), especially chaps. 1, 6, 8, 11, 13, and 14. Also see Morton White, Social Thought in America: The Revolt Against Formalism , rev. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), especially chaps. 1, 2, 10, and the epilogue to the 1957 edition.

61. Sidney Hook, "The Integral Humanism of Jacques Maritain," Partisan Review 7(3):204-9, May-June 1940, p. 204; "The New Failure of Nerve," Partisan Review 10(1):2-23, January-February 1943.

62. Purcell, The Crisis of Democratic Theory , pp. 203, 218-19. Letter from Sidney Hook to the author, July 17, 1986.

63. Quoted in Konvitz, "Sidney Hook," p. 20.

64. Hook, "Breaking With the Communists," pp. 48-52.

65. William Phillips, A Partisan View (New York: Stein and Day, 1983), pp. 30, 45.

66. William Barrett, The Truants (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1982), p. 84. Feuer, "From Ideology to Philosophy," p. 36.

67. Sidney Hook, "Ethereal Politics," The Nation 142:653-54, May 20, 1936.

68. Diggins, Up From Communism , pp. 169-70. Gilbert, Writers and Partisans , pp. 165, 202-3.

69. Sidney Hook, "The Future of Socialism," Partisan Review 14(1):23-36, January-February 1947, p. 24.

70. Sidney Hook, "Three Intellectual Troubadours," The American Spectator 18(1):18-22, January 1985, p. 21. Norman Podhoretz, Breaking Ranks (New York: Harper, 1979), p. 178. Philip Rahv, Essays on Literature and Politics, 1932-1972 , Arabel Porter and Andrew Dvosin, eds. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 353.

71. Phillips, Partisan View , pp. 163-64.

72. Howe, A Margin of Hope (New York: Harcourt, 1982), p. 211.

73. Hook, Political Power , pp. 363-64.

74. Sidney Hook, "Living with Deep Truths in a Divided World," Free Inquiry , 3(1):30-31, Winter 1982-83, p. 31; Hook, Political Power , p. v.

75. Gunn, Culture of Criticism , p. 64.

76. Phillips, Partisan View , pp. 163-64.

77. Hook, "My Running Debate With Einstein," p. 48. NYT , March 20, 1949, p. 4.

78. Hook, "Peace Offensive," p. 694.

79. NYT , March 20, 1949, p. 4. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," p. 32A.

80. Interview with Lewis Coser, Wellfleet, Mass., July 9, 1985. Interview with Sidney Hook, Wardsboro, Vt., July 15, 1985. Letter from Hook to the author, August 1, 1985.

81. Hook, "Peace Offensive," pp. 694-96. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," p. 32A. "Summary of an Interview with Sidney Hook, 5 April 1972," in Job L. Dittberner, The End of Ideology and American Social Thought, 1930-1960 (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1979), p. 305.

82. NYT , March 25, 1949, p. 18. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," p. 32A.

83. Fast, "Cultural Forces," pp. 32-33.

84. Joseph Lash, "Weekend at the Waldorf," The New Republic 120:10-14, April 18, 1949, p. 11. Hook, "Peace Offensive," p. 699.

85. NYT , March 21, 1949, p. 4. "The Shostakovich Gambit," Newsweek 33:22-23, March 28, 1949. "Everybody Wars Over It," p. 19. NYT , March 4, 1949, p. 2. Others who withdrew or were too "sick" to attend included Donovan McCune, professor of pediatrics at the College of ` Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia; Dr. Herbert Davis, president of Smith College; Marshall E. Dimock, professor of political science at Northwestern University; Dr. Lyle Borst, project leader at Brookhaven National Laboratory; Lisa Sergio, radio commentator; Canada Lee, a black actor;

and Franklin P. (''Information, Please") Adams, the radio personality who claimed he had been "a sucker."

86. NYT , March 25, 1949, pp. 1, 18. Fast, "Cultural Forces," p. 31.

87. Phillips, Partisan View , p. 149.

88. NYT , March 20, 1949, p. 4; March 22, 1949, p. 16.

89. NYT , March 23, 1949, p. 18.

90. NYT , March 27, 1949, pp. 1, 46; March 26, 1949, p. 3. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," p. 32B. New York Herald Tribune , March 27, 1949, p. 1.

91. Anatole Shub, "Soviets Launch 'Peace' Drive in West, Concentrate on East," The New Leader , April 2, 1949, p. 3. NYT , March 27, 1949, pp. 1, 46. New York Herald Tribune , March 27, 1949, p. 42. UPI photos of Hook and Max Eastman speaking at the Freedom House conference are reproduced in Diggins, Up From Communism , following page 300.

92. Others who addressed the AIF conference were H. J. Muller, a Nobel Prize winner and professor of genetics at Indiana University; Max Eastman, who had already completed his journey from political left to right; Dr. Max Yergan, a founder and former chairman of the Council on African Affairs; and Morris L. Ernst, lawyer and a director of the ACLU. Completing the list were George Counts, professor at Teachers College and cochairman of the AIF; George Biddle, an artist; and Nicholas Nabokov, a music critic. NYT , March 27, 1949, pp. 1, 46; March 26, 1949, p. 3. New York Herald Tribune , March 27, 1949, p. 42. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," p. 32B.

93. New York Herald Tribune , March 27, 1949, p. 42. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," p. 32B. NYT , April 21, 1949, p. 6.

94. NYT , April 21, 1949, p. 6.

95. Dittberner, "Interview with Hook," pp. 306-7.

96. Diana Trilling, "An Interview With Dwight Macdonald," Partisan Review 51(1):799-819, anniversary issue, 1984-85, p. 801.

97. D. Trilling, "Interview with Macdonald," p. 799. Dwight Macdonald, Memoirs of a Revolutionist (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1957), pp. 6-7. Current Biography , 1969 yearbook (New York: H. H. Wilson, 1969), pp. 277-78.

98. D. Trilling, "Interview with Macdonald," pp. 800-801. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 8-9.

99. In the 1980s Cowley still felt that the animosity from the 1930s persisted. "I fought with the group(s) in 1938 and they never forgave me," he remembered. "For many years they have waged a vendetta against me and it continues in 1984; consult the summer and forthcoming fall numbers of the Georgia Review ." Letter from Malcolm Cowley to the author, August 13, 1984. Cowley complained publicly that Kenneth Lynn and other neoconservative critics had accused him of an anti-American interpretation of the work of Ernest Hemingway in his introduction to

the Viking Portable Hemingway in 1949—an interpretation they said showed that Cowley took to literature in the postwar period his frustrations from an earlier unsuccessful totalitarian liberalism that opposed America and celebrated the Soviet Union. Malcolm Cowley, "Hemingway's Wound—And Its Consequences for American Literature," Georgia Review 38(2):223-39, Summer 1984.

100. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 6-7, 10. D. Trilling, "Interview with Macdonald," p. 803.

101. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 10-11. D. Trilling, "Interview with Macdonald," p. 803.

102. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 11-12. D. Trilling, "Interview with Macdonald," p. 800.

103. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 128, 147-48, 296, 307.

104. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 300, 298.

105. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 155,158.

106. Letter from Cowley to the author, August 13, 1984.

107. D. Trilling, "Interview with Macdonald," p. 805.

108. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," pp. 32A, 32B, 32C. Macdonald, "Misstatement and Bias?" (letter to the editor), The Nation 168:624-25, May 28, 1949.

109. Margaret Marshall, "Notes By the Way," The Nation 168: 419-20, April 9, 1949.

110. Sidney Hook, "Waldorf Aftermath—Dr. Hook Protests" (letter to the editor), The Nation 168:511-13, April 30, 1949.

111. Fast, "Cultural Forces," p. 37. Letter from Albert E. Kahn to Harlow Shapley, March 1, 1949, in the Shapley Papers, box 10c, "peace conference" file. Used by permission of Mrs. Albert E. Kahn.

112. Kirchwey claimed that in addition to Cousins, editor of the Saturday Review , the conference had asked such noted anti-Communists as Bryn J. Horde, president of the New School for Social Research; Trygve Lie, the secretary general of the United Nations; Isador Lubin, an economist who was a member of Roosevelt's brain trust; Gordon Clapp, chairman of the board of the Tennessee Valley Authority; Stacy May, associate professor of economics at Goucher College; Louis Wirth, professor of sociology at the University of Chicago; and Thomas Parran, former surgeon general of the United States, a founder of the World Health Organization, and dean of the Graduate School of Public Health at the University of Pittsburgh. Freda Kirchwey, "Waldorf Aftermath—Miss Kirchwey Replies," The Nation 168:511-13, April 30, 1949.

113. Freda Kirchwey, "Battle of the Waldorf," The Nation 168:377-78, April 2, 1949; and Kirchwey, "Waldorf Aftermath," p. 512.

114. Marshall, "Notes By the Way," pp. 419-20.

115. Hook, "Waldorf Aftermath," p. 511. Kirchwey, "Waldorf Aftermath," p. 512.

116. NYT , March 24, 1949, p. 2. Hook, "Peace Offensive," p. 706.

117. Theodore Brameld, "Conference Defended" (letter to the editor), NYT , April 3, 1949, section IV, p. 8.

118. Sidney Hook and George S. Counts, "Stand of the Liberals" (letter to the editor), NYT , April 3, 1949, p. 28.

119. Theodore Brameld, "Lessons of Cultural Meeting" (letter to the editor), NYT , April 19, 1949, p. 24.

120. Hook, "Waldorf Aftermath," p. 511.

121. Kirchwey, "Waldorf Aftermath," p. 512.

122. Marshall, "Notes By the Way," p. 419.

123. Barrett, "Culture Conference," p. 492. Macdonald, "The Waldorf Conference," p. 32D.

124. William Phillips, "The Politics of Desperation," Partisan Review 15(4) :449-55, April 1948, p. 449.