1. Marx, Capital , MEW 25, pp. 260, 274-275, 276-277; C III, pp. 250, 264, 266.

2. Ibid., MEW 23, p. 16; C I, p. 15.

3. Ibid., p. 26; C I, p. 23.

4. Ibid., MEW 25. p. 32; C III, p. 25.

5. Ibid., p. 184; C III, p. 175: "Such a general rate of surplus value-viewed as a tendency like all other economic laws. . . . "

1. Marx, Capital , MEW 25, pp. 260, 274-275, 276-277; C III, pp. 250, 264, 266.

2. Ibid., MEW 23, p. 16; C I, p. 15.

3. Ibid., p. 26; C I, p. 23.

4. Ibid., MEW 25. p. 32; C III, p. 25.

5. Ibid., p. 184; C III, p. 175: "Such a general rate of surplus value-viewed as a tendency like all other economic laws. . . . "

1. Marx, Capital , MEW 25, pp. 260, 274-275, 276-277; C III, pp. 250, 264, 266.

2. Ibid., MEW 23, p. 16; C I, p. 15.

3. Ibid., p. 26; C I, p. 23.

4. Ibid., MEW 25. p. 32; C III, p. 25.

5. Ibid., p. 184; C III, p. 175: "Such a general rate of surplus value-viewed as a tendency like all other economic laws. . . . "

1. Marx, Capital , MEW 25, pp. 260, 274-275, 276-277; C III, pp. 250, 264, 266.

2. Ibid., MEW 23, p. 16; C I, p. 15.

3. Ibid., p. 26; C I, p. 23.

4. Ibid., MEW 25. p. 32; C III, p. 25.

5. Ibid., p. 184; C III, p. 175: "Such a general rate of surplus value-viewed as a tendency like all other economic laws. . . . "

1. Marx, Capital , MEW 25, pp. 260, 274-275, 276-277; C III, pp. 250, 264, 266.

2. Ibid., MEW 23, p. 16; C I, p. 15.

3. Ibid., p. 26; C I, p. 23.

4. Ibid., MEW 25. p. 32; C III, p. 25.

5. Ibid., p. 184; C III, p. 175: "Such a general rate of surplus value-viewed as a tendency like all other economic laws. . . . "

6. Manx, Poverty , MEGA I, 6, p. 191; CW 6, p. 177.

7. Ibid., p. 227; CW 6, p. 211.

6. Manx, Poverty , MEGA I, 6, p. 191; CW 6, p. 177.

7. Ibid., p. 227; CW 6, p. 211.

8. See Marx and Engels. Manifesto , MEW 4. pp. 470-471; CW 6, pp. 492-493.

9. Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I, 3, p. 206; CW 4, p. 36.

10. Marx and Engels, German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, p. 60; CW 5, pp. 52-53.

11. Marx and Engels to Bebel, Licbknecht, Bracke, and others, 9-17-79, MEW 19, p. 165; SC, p. 327.

12. Marx, "An Exchange of Letters," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 561; CW 3, p. 137.

13. Marx, "Toward the Critique," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 615; CW 3, p. 182.

14. Marx to Schweitzer, 10-13-68, MEW 32, p. 570; SC, p. 215.

15. See Marx, Grundrisse , GK, p. 716; G, p. 832.

16. Ibid., pp. 366-367; G, p. 463.

15. See Marx, Grundrisse , GK, p. 716; G, p. 832.

16. Ibid., pp. 366-367; G, p. 463.

17. Albert 0. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton, 1977), pp. 43-44; in this context, Hirschman cites the Helvetius passage quoted above.

18. Hegel, Philosophy of Right , p. 124 (§187).

19. Adam Ferguson, An Essay on the History of Civil Society (Edinburgh, 1966), pp. 11, 15.

20. Hegel, Philosophy of Right , p. 189 (§288).

21. See, e. g., Marx, "Proceedings of the Sixth Rhine Province Assembly. continue

Third Article Debates on the Law on Thefts of Wood," MEGA I, 1/1, pp. 266-304; CW I, pp. 224-263; "The Supplement to Nos. 335 and 336 of the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung on the Commissions of the Estates in Prussia," MEGA I, 1/1, pp. 321-335; CW 1. pp. 292-306; "Justification of the Correspondent from the Mosel," MEGA I, 1/1, pp. 355-383; CW 1, pp. 332-358.

22. Marx, Political Economy , MEW 13, pp. 7-8; CPE, p. 10.

23. Marx, Economic and Philosophic , MEGA I. 3, p. 144; CW 3, p. 321; Marx, Critique of "Philosophy, "MEGA I, 1/1. p. 547: CW 3, p. 123.

24. Marx, "Justification," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 373; CW 1, p. 349.

25. Tocqueville, Democracy , I, 252; Marx cites Tocqueville in "On the Jewish Question."

26. Marx, "Justification," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 368; CW 1, p. 343.

27. Ibid., p. 373; CW 1, p. 349.

26. Marx, "Justification," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 368; CW 1, p. 343.

27. Ibid., p. 373; CW 1, p. 349.

28. Marx, "Proceedings," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 298; CW 1. p. 256.

29. Marx, "Toward the Critique," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 619; CW 3, p. 186.

30. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (New York, 1937), p. 249. For Marx's comments in 1844, see his Economic and Philosophic , MEGA I, 3, pp. 44-45; CW 3, pp. 240-241; and MEGA I, 3. pp. 72-73; CW 3, pp. 263-264, where he disputes Smith's other important claim, that the landlords as well as the workers have an interest identical with society's. Marx copied out the relevant passages: see MEGA I, 3, p. 472 ("Aus den Exzerptheften: Adam Smith, Recherches sur la nature et les causes de la richesse des nations"). Some years later, Marx returned to the same passage: see MEW, 26.2, pp. 373-374; see also Marx, Theories of Surplus Value , II, trans. Ryazanskaya (Moscow, 1968), p. 372.

31. Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I, 3, p. 299; CW 4, p. 123; idem, German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, p. 22; CW 5, p. 47; idem, Manifesto , MEW 4, p. 464; CW 6, p. 487.

32. Marx, Manifesto , MEW 4, p. 472; CW 6, pp. 494-495.

33. Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I, 3, p. 296; CW 4, p. 120.

34. Ibid., MEGA I, 3. p. 307; CW 4. pp. 130-131.

33. Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I, 3, p. 296; CW 4, p. 120.

34. Ibid., MEGA I, 3. p. 307; CW 4. pp. 130-131.

35. Marx, "On Poland," MEW 4, p. 416; CW 6, p. 388; Marx and Engels, German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, p. 65; CW 5, p. 77.

36. Marx and Engels, German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, p. 228; CW 5, p. 247; Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I, 3, p. 310; CW 4, p. 134.

37. Cf. Marx and Engels, German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, pp. 64, 192; CW 5, pp. 80, 213.

38. Marx, The Ethnological Notebooks of Karl Marx , ed. Krader (Assen, Netherlands, 1972), p. 329. My thanks to Cyril Levitt for pointing out this important passage.

39. In The German Ideology interest was also historically situated as a continue

defining aspect of classes in contradistinction to feudal estates. See Marx and Engels, The German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, p. 52; CW 5, p. 90: "By the mere fact that it is a class and no longer an estate , the bourgeoisie is forced to organize itself no longer locally, but nationally, and to give a general form to its average interests."

40. Ibid., p. 177; CW 5, p. 195.

39. In The German Ideology interest was also historically situated as a continue

defining aspect of classes in contradistinction to feudal estates. See Marx and Engels, The German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, p. 52; CW 5, p. 90: "By the mere fact that it is a class and no longer an estate , the bourgeoisie is forced to organize itself no longer locally, but nationally, and to give a general form to its average interests."

40. Ibid., p. 177; CW 5, p. 195.

41. See Marx, "Proceedings," MEGA I, 1/1, pp. 283, 291; CW 1, pp. 241, 249; see also ibid., p. 303; CW 1, p. 261: "Interest by its very nature is blind, immoderate, one-sided; in short, it is lawless natural instinct. . . . "

42. Ibid., pp. 289-290; CW 1, p. 247.

41. See Marx, "Proceedings," MEGA I, 1/1, pp. 283, 291; CW 1, pp. 241, 249; see also ibid., p. 303; CW 1, p. 261: "Interest by its very nature is blind, immoderate, one-sided; in short, it is lawless natural instinct. . . . "

42. Ibid., pp. 289-290; CW 1, p. 247.

43. Marx and Engels, Manifesto , MEW 4, p. 493; CW 6, p. 519; Marx, Capital , MEW 25, pp. 204, 208; C III, pp. 194, 198; Marx, Economic and Philosophic , MEGA I, 3, p. 135; CW 3, p. 313; Marx. Grundrisse , GK, p. 155; G, p. 244.

44. Marx, Capital , MEW 23, pp. 421-422; C I, p. 436.

45. Smith, Wealth , p. 249; see also p. 734, where Smith describes the modern worker "as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become"—a section of Smith's book cited by Marx in Capital , MEW 23, pp. 383-384; C I, pp. 397-398.

46. See Hirschman, Passions , pp. 110-111, for a development of this point.

47. See Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I. 3, pp. 252-253; CW 4, pp. 81-82: "The interest of the bourgeoisie in the 1789 Revolution . . . 'won' everything. . . . The Revolution was a 'failure' only for the mass which did not have in the political 'idea' the idea of its real 'interest.' . .  . If the Revolution was a failure, it was not because the mass was 'enthusiastic' over it and 'interested' in it, but because the most numerous part of the mass, the part distinct from the bourgeoisie, did not have a revolutionary principle of its own , but only an 'idea,' and hence only an object of momentary enthusiasm and only seeming uplift." By contrast, the interest of the bourgeoisie—a class which knew its "real interest"—was a powerful historical factor: "That interest was so powerful that it was victorious over the pen of Marat, the guillotine of the Terror and the sword of Napoleon."

48. Ibid., p. 309; CW 4, p. 133.

47. See Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I. 3, pp. 252-253; CW 4, pp. 81-82: "The interest of the bourgeoisie in the 1789 Revolution . . . 'won' everything. . . . The Revolution was a 'failure' only for the mass which did not have in the political 'idea' the idea of its real 'interest.' . .  . If the Revolution was a failure, it was not because the mass was 'enthusiastic' over it and 'interested' in it, but because the most numerous part of the mass, the part distinct from the bourgeoisie, did not have a revolutionary principle of its own , but only an 'idea,' and hence only an object of momentary enthusiasm and only seeming uplift." By contrast, the interest of the bourgeoisie—a class which knew its "real interest"—was a powerful historical factor: "That interest was so powerful that it was victorious over the pen of Marat, the guillotine of the Terror and the sword of Napoleon."

48. Ibid., p. 309; CW 4, p. 133.

49. Hegel, Philosophy of Right , pp. 124-125 (§187).

50. But cf. the acid remarks on Hegel's philosophy of education in Marx, Capital , MEW 23, p. 385n; C I, p. 399n.

51. Marx, "Critical Marginal Notes," MEGA I, 3, pp. 17-19; CW 3, pp. 201-202; Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England , MEGA I, 4, p. 112; CW 4, p. 410.

52. Marx and Engels, German Ideology , MEGA I, 5, pp. 67-68; CW 5, p. 79. break

53. Marx, Poverty , MEGA I, 6, p. 226; CW 6, p. 211; Marx and Engels, Manifesto , MEW 4, p. 471; CW 6. pp. 493-494.

54. Marx, Eighteenth Brumaire , MEW 8, p. 198; CW I, p. 479.

55. Cf. Marx. "Leading Article," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 241; CW 1, p. 193.

56. Marx and Engels, "Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League," MEW 7, p. 254; SW I, p. 185; cf. Marx, Poverty , MEGA I, 6, p. 191; CW 6, pp. 177-178.

57. See Marx and Engels, Manifesto , MEW 4, pp. 471-472; CW 6, pp. 493-494.

58. Marx, Poverty , MEGA I, 6, p. 225; CW 6, p. 210.

59. Marx, "Instructions for the Delegates of the Provisional General Council. The Different Questions," SW II, p. 81.

60. Ibid., p. 83. Marx also warned against a preoccupation with purely economic issues here: "Too exclusively bent upon the local and immediate struggle with capital, the Trades' Unions have not yet fully understood the power of acting against the system of wages slavery itself."

59. Marx, "Instructions for the Delegates of the Provisional General Council. The Different Questions," SW II, p. 81.

60. Ibid., p. 83. Marx also warned against a preoccupation with purely economic issues here: "Too exclusively bent upon the local and immediate struggle with capital, the Trades' Unions have not yet fully understood the power of acting against the system of wages slavery itself."

61. Marx and Engels, Manifesto , MEW 4, p. 472; CW 6, p. 495.

62. Hegel, Logic , p. 147 (§81).

63. See Hegel, Die Vernunft in der Geschichte , ed. Hoffmeister (Hamburg, 1955), p. 29 (L).

64. Hegel, Science , II, 185.

65. Ibid., p.213.

64. Hegel, Science , II, 185.

65. Ibid., p.213.

66. Hegel, Philosophy of History , trans. Sibree (New York, 1956), p. 34.

67. Smith, Wealth , p. 13.

68. See Helmut Fleischer, Marxism and History , trans. Mosbacher (New York, 1973), pp. 119-121.

69. Marx. "An Exchange," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 574; CW 3, p. 143.

70. Smith, Wealth , p. 324.

71. See Hirschman, Passions , pp. 48-56, on "Assets of an Interest-Governed World: Predictability and Constancy."

72. Hegel, Logic , p. 350 (§206). Marx footnoted the first pan of this passage in his discussion of the labor process: see Marx, Capital , MEW 23, p. 194n; C I, p. 199n.

73. Marx, "Speech," SW I, p. 501. Karl Löwith identified Marx's "shrewd spirit" with Hegel's "cunning of Reason" in Löwith, Meaning in History (Chicago, 1949), p. 36.

74. Elie Halévy, The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism , trans. Morris (Boston, 1955), pp. 52-53; cf. Leonard Krieger, Kings and Philosophers, 1689-1789 (New York, 1970), pp. 210-215, on "The New Rationalism."

75. See Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract , Book II, chap. 1.

76. See ibid., chap. 7; in "On the Jewish Question," Marx cites this chapter, although his understanding of the text is questionable. break

75. See Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract , Book II, chap. 1.

76. See ibid., chap. 7; in "On the Jewish Question," Marx cites this chapter, although his understanding of the text is questionable. break

77. Marx, Capital , MEW 23, p. 74; C I. p. 69; and "An Exchange," MEGA I, 1/1, p. 574; CW 3, p. 143. A different impression is left by Marx's rhetoric on other occasions: see Marx and Engels, Manifesto , MEW 4, p. 465; CW 6, p. 487: "Constant revolutionizing of production . . . distinguish[es] the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned. . . . "

78. Marx, "Speech," SW I, p. 501.

79. Marx and Engels, Holy Family , MEGA I, 3, p. 207; CW 4, p. 37.