Shanghai on the Métro "nsd0e150"

Chapter One War

1. My sources for sales or printing figures are Monique Jeanin (for books published by Fayard), Monsieur Grey-Draillart (for books published in the Secret War series by Baudinière), Franoise Tallon (for Fu Manchu novels and books published by the Librairie des Champs-Elysées), Madame Daudier (for books published by Payot), Jean-Pierre Dauphin (for books published by Gallimard), Brigitte Martin (for books published by Plon), Monsieur Mery (for books published by Grasset), Monsieur Henriquez (for books published by Tallandier), and Monsieur de Lignerolles (for books published by Berger-Levrault).

2. Maurice Dekobra, The Madonna of the Sleeping Cars , trans. Neal Wainwright (New York: Payson and Clarke, 1927; originally published as La madone des sleepings [Paris: Baudinière, 1925]); André Malraux, The Conquerors , trans. Stephen Becker (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976; originally published as Les conquérants [Paris: Grasset, 1928]); André Malraux, La voie royale (1930; reprint, Paris: Livre de Poche, 1967), 16; André Malraux, Man's Fate , trans. Haakon M. Chevalier (New York: Random House, 1961; originally published as La condition humaine [Paris: Gallimard, 1933]). According to Paul Fussell, Dekobra's Madonna , including its translations, sold over a million copies. Paul Fussell, Abroad: British Literary Traveling Between the Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 64.

3. Bertrand Gauthier, La cinquième colonne contre la paix du monde: l'internationale des espions, des assassins, des cagoulards, et des provocateurs au service du fascisme (Paris: Bureau d'Editions, 1938).

4. The Brown Network , trans. Clement Greenberg (New York: Knight Publications, 1936). The original edition, Das braune Netz , was published in 1935 by Editions du Carrefour whose leading figure was Willi Münzenberg. See Gilbert Badia et al., Les barbelés de l'exil (Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 1979), 397-402. A 1936 French translation, Le filet brun , exists, although a file in the Archives nationales (hereafter, AN) suggests it was out by September 1935. AN F7 13434, 10 September 1935.

5. George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (1938; reprint, Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), 140ff., 170ff.

6. Le Petit Parisien , 2 April 1935. The newspaper's circulation was roughly one and one-half million until 1935, declining to about a million by 1939. Claude Bellanger et al., Histoire générale de la presse franaise (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1972), 3:512.

7. AN BB18 6476, 4 October 1937 (report of Commissaire de police mobile Delrieu); ibid., 6 May 1938; SHAT 5N 578, 20 May 1940 (from the Attaché militaire, ambassade de France en Italie); SHAT 5N 601, 27 May 1940 (from Jean Ybarnégaray).

8. Among fifth-column books see Peter de Polnay, The Germans Came to Paris (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1943); Henry Torrès, Campaign of Treachery (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1942); Heinz Pol, Suicide of a Democracy , trans. Heinz and Ruth Norden (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1940); Alexander Werth, The Last Days of Paris (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1940); Yves R. Simon, The Road to Vichy , trans. James A. Corbett and George J. McMorrow (New York: Sheen and Ward, 1942); André Simone, J'accuse: The Men Who Betrayed France (New York: The Dial Press, 1940); Pierre Lazareff, Deadline: The Behind-the-Scenes Story of the Last Decade in France , trans. David Partridge (New York: Random House, 1942); Jean Quéval, Première page, cinquième colonne (Paris: J. Fayard, 1945); Albert Bayet, Pétain et la 5e colonne (Paris: Editions Franc-tireur, 1944); Maurice Gamelin, Servir (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1946), 1:97, 357, 368; ibid., 2:462. The best book for distinguishing fact from myth is Louis de Jong's German Fifth Column in the Second World War , trans. C. M. Geyl (1956; reprint, New York: Howard Fertig, 1973). See also Max Gallo, Et ce fut la défaite de 40: la cinquième colonne (Paris: Plon, 1970).

9. The Nazi Conspiracy in Spain , trans. Emile Burns (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937), an English translation of Franz Spielhagen [alias of Otto Katz], Spione und Verschwörer in Spanien (Paris: Editions du Carrefour, 1936); on this edition see Badia, Barbelés , 402, 417. Although this volume was based on confiscated documents from Nazi headquarters in Barcelona, it, and its predecessor, should be read with caution. Both were packed with innuendo and claims that strain credibility and extend far beyond what French and German archives have recorded.

10. L'Illustration , 18 April 1936.

11. Most of these phrases were clichés. See especially Vu et Lu , 3 November 1937; Match , 16 February 1939.

12. Among these see Jean Camentron, Le danger aéro-chimique (Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1936); Armand Charpentier, Ce que sera la guerre des gaz (Paris: André Delpeuch, 1930); Walt Wilm and A. Chaplet, Gaz de guerre et guerre des gaz (Paris: Publications Papyrus, 1936); Le document , March 1939. See also Uri Bialer, The Shadow of the Bomber: The Fear of Air Attack and British Politics 1932-1939 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1980).

13. Florian-Parmentier, L'abîme (Paris: Albert Messein, 1934); Victor Méric, La «Der des Der» (Paris: Editions de France, 1929). For a turnaround on the gas war theme, see Michel Corday's vision of a pink gas spread over the world and preventing war by turning people into more humane individuals with a heightened consciousness of human potential. Michel Corday, Ciel rose (Paris: Flammarion, 1933).

14. Florian-Parmentier, Abîme , 45. Albert de Pouvourville, La guerre prochaine: Paris l'invincible (Paris: Baudinière, 1935), 5:22, 54-55; Florimond Bonte, La guerre de demain: aérienne, chimique, bactériologique (Lille: Editions Prolétariennes, n.d.), 21-22. Bauer is cited in Wilm, Gaz , 118.

15. Jean Bardanne, La guerre et les microbes (Paris: Baudinière, 1937); Pierre Yrondy, De la cocaïne . . . aux gaz!!! (Paris: Baudinière, 1934), 10-11. Charles Lucieto, La guerre des cerveaux: livrés à l'ennemi (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1928); Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: l'idole de plomb (Paris: Fayard, 1935); Jean Bommart, Hélène et le poisson chinois (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1938); Georges Ladoux, L'espionne de l'empereur (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1933); Marcel Nadaud and André Fage, L'armée du crime: la coco; l'espionnage d'après-guerre (Paris: Georges-Anquetil, 1926), 211.

16. SHAT 7N 3179, August 1935, 25 November 1936 (from Deuxième Bureau), 1 July 1937 (from Deuxième Bureau), 16 March 1939, pp. 28-29; APP BA 1706, 26 November 1935.

17. SHAT 7N 2462, 15 October 1939; AN F7 13986, 13 March 1940.

18. APP BA 61, 27 [24?] January 1934.

19. MAE Affaires diverses politiques Allemagne 38 bis 1889, 8 May 1889 (from MI, Sûreté générale to MAE). The instruction of the Direction politique at the MAE has no date, but a note was sent to the MI on 10 May 1889.è

20. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 791, 23 May 1940 (from Direction politique et commerciale/Europe to Monsieur l'amiral de la flotte commandant les forces maritimes franaises); ibid., 9 May 1940 (from Charles Roux, Rome-Saint Siège to MAE); ibid., 23 April 1940 (from Jean Dobler to MAE). The report from the Polish High Command also warned that saboteurs had dressed in the clothing of workers, beggars, priests, and monks. AN F7 13986, 13 March 1940.

21. Paul and Suzanne Lanoir, Espions espionnage (Paris: Delandre 1917), 2:280-81; Walter Nicolai, Forces secrètes , trans. Henri Thies (Paris: Editions de la Nouvelle Revue Critique, 1932), 145; Raoult de Rudeval, Etude pratique du service des renseignements (Paris: H. Charles-Lavauzelle, 1910), 46. Catholic priests played a considerable role in the Lux and Dame blanche intelligence networks in occupied Belgium and France during World War I. Andrew, Secret Service , 156-60.

22. I. F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, 1763-1984 (London: Oxford University Press, 1966); Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 2; David French, "Spy Fever in Britain 1900-1915," Historical Journal 21 (June 1978): 355-70. On Germany see Philip Knightly, The Second Oldest Profession (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), 34.

23. Lanoir, Espions , 2:239; Jean Tillet, Dans les coulisses de la guerre: espionnage, contre-espionnage (Paris: Imprimerie du Reveil économique, 1933), 16-17.

24. Knightly, Second , 3; Andrew, Secret Service , 1-9; "Espionnage," La grande encyclopédie: inventaire raisonné des sciences, des lettres, et des arts , 2d ed., 16:367-69; M. R. D. Foot, SOE in France: An Account of the Work of the British Special Operations Executive in France, 1940-1944 (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1984), 1; Garrett Mattingly, The Armada , 30, 48; Alison Plowden, The Elizabethan Secret Service (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester

Wheatsheaf, 1991). Paul Muller, L'espionnage militaire sous Napoléon Ier (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1896); Fernand Routier, L'espionnage et la trahison en temps de paix et en temps de guerre (Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1913), 39-45.è

25. Léon Daudet, L'avant-guerre: études et documents sur l'espionnage juifallemand en France depuis l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris: Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, 1913), viii-ix. This book was preceded by a series of articles in the Action Franaise . For background and sales figures, Eugen Weber, Action Française (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962), 89. See also François Loyal, L'espionnage allemand en France (Paris: Albert Savine, 1887), 96, 103; L'Intransigeant , 24 March 1896; J. Santo, La France envahie, trahie, vendue (Paris: J. Santo, 1912).

26. Bundesarchiv, Abteilung Militägeschichte, Freiburg im Breisgau (hereafter, MA) RW5/654 (Gempp, Geheimer Nachrichtendienst und Spionageabwehr des Heeres ), 13-20, 28, 257-59, 272; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 31-34, 555; Leopold Auerbach, Denkwürdigkeiten des geheimen Regierungsrathes Dr. Stieber (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Engelmann, 1884); Gert Buchheit, Der deutsche Geheimdienst: Geschichte der militärischen Abwehr (Munich: Paul List Verlag, 1967), 18. Michael Howard's authoritative work on the Franco-Prussian War makes no mention of Stieber: The Franco-Prussian War (London: Methuen, 1981).

27. MA RW5/654 (this theme runs through Gempp's account), especially pp. 3, 72, 80, 300-304; Nicolai, Forces , 26-27, 31-32; von Lettow-Vorbeck, ed., Die Weltkriegspionage (Munich: Verlag Justin Moser, 1931), 78-79 (also on the supposed superiority of French prewar intelligence); SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925 ("Fonctionnement d'un poste de SR dépendant du GQG pendant la guerre"); Henri Navarre et un groupe d'anciens membres du S. R., Le service de renseignements, 1871-1944 (Paris: Plon, 1978), 15-18; Buchheit, Geheimdienst , 18-20; Andrew, Secret Service . Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 32, claims that IIIb's funding was second only to that of Russian intelligence by the early twentieth century. But his source—a 1912 Foreign Office report on the published budgets of European secret services—cannot be accepted as authoritative. Information on European intelligence operations before World War I remains sketchy. The best overview is in May, ed., Knowing Ones Enemies .

28. MA RW5/654, pp. 116, 118, 131, 395; MA RW5/657 (Gempp), pp. 10, 51, 201-6; Nicolai, Forces , 29; Ulrich Trumpener, "War Premeditated? German Intelligence Operations in July 1914," Central European History 9 (March 1976): 58-85. On the Balkans see MA RW5/660 (Gempp), pp. 13-16. On sabotage, see Trumpener, "War," 74-75; MA RW5/654, pp. 126, 128 (red number); MA RW5/657, pp. 27-28.

29. Paul and Suzanne Lanoir, Les grands espions (Paris: G. Ficker, 1911), 190-233. See also Paul Lanoir, L'espionnage allemand en France (Pads: Publications Littéraires Illustrées, n. d. [before 1914]; Victor Tissot, La police secrète prussienne (Paris: E. Dentu, 1884).

30. Jules-Louis Lewal, Etudes de guerre: tactique des renseignements (Pads: Librairie Militaire de J. Dumaine, 1881), 1:73-74; Routier, L'espionnage , 19-23, 48; James Violle, L'espionnage militaire en temps de guerre (Paris: Librairie de la Société du Recueil des lois et des arrêts, 1903), 82; "Espionnage," Grande encyclopédie . See also A. Froment, L'espionnage militaire et les fonds secrets de la guerre (Paris: Librairie Illustrée, 1887), 105, 118-19; Rudeval, Etude , 32, 41.

31. Lanoir, Grands , 234-39; Lanoir, Espionnage allemand ; Lanoir, Espions , 1:7-13; 2:173; Routier, L'espionnage , 23-27. On traveling circuses, see also Loyal, Espionnage , 95; APP BA 1332, 22 September 1886.

32. Le Petit Parisien , 9 September 1886; L'Aurore , 24 September 1897; Le Petit Journal , 15 May 1911.

33. Capitaine Danrit [Emile Augustin Cyprien Driant], L'alerte (Paris: Flammarion, 1910).

34. Three works by Danrit: La guerre au vingtième siècle: l'invasion noire (Paris: Flammarion, 1894); L'invasion jaune (1909; reprint, Paris: Flammarion, 1926); and La guerre fatale: France-Angleterre (Paris: Flammarion, 1903).

35. On the literature and spy fears coming out of this war see chapter 4.

36. AN F7 12644 n. d. The letter is in the October 1897 folder in this file.

37. All of these affairs were discussed in the French press. On German secret police, including the Haupt affair, see Dieter Fricke, Bismarcks Prätorianer: Die Berliner Politische Polizei im Kampf gegen die deutsche Arbeiterbewegung (1871-1898) (Berlin: Rütten und Loening, 1962). Fricke describes a police operation spread to a number of European cities (although numbers of agents abroad were not high) that primarily maintained surveillance over socialist activities and the smuggling of socialist literature into Germany. He does not confirm the wilder charges directed at Krüger. A police report reproducing an article in the Tribune de Genève also provides a fairly sober account of the Haupt affair: APP BA 1333, 30 December 1887. Speculation on Krüger's connection with Russian terrorists can be found in the Lanterne , 28-31 December 1887 and Le Petit Parisien , 29-31 December 1887, 2 January 1888. See also note 45, below. Police files on the Seliverstov assassination include APP BA 1212; MI 25358. Apparently Seliverstov was connected with the Okhrana. On Russian affairs see also AN F7 14605, 29 June 1914, "La police russe en France."

38. See chapter 3.

39. APP BA 913, 13 October 1893, February 1894, 26 December 1894; AN F7 12519/12520A; AN F7 12521; AN F7 12894. See also the following two reports on the potential for violence and militant action from Russian and Italian émigrés in France: AN F7 12894, 10 December 1907 (report from Préfecture de police communicated to Président du conseil on 16 December 1907); AN F7 13065, 16 December 1912 ("Les révolutionnaires étrangers en France").

40. AN F7 14605, 19 June 1914 ("Note sur les polices étrangères en France"); AN F7 14605, 29 June 1914 ("La police russe"); APP BA 1693, 29 October 1913; Le Matin , 24 July 1909.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid. Apparently the Okhrana continued to appoint a police delegate to Paris. Norman Cohen ascribes a number of violent acts to Rachkovskii and his agents, including a bombing in Liège in 1894 and Seliverstov's assassination, arguing that Seliverstov had been sent to investigate Rachkovskii: Norman Cohen, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (New York: Harper, 1967), 79ff. See also Boris Nikolajewsky, Aseff the Spy , trans. George Reavey (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1934), 18-21, 118-19.

43. AN F7 12519/12520A, 28 November 1901; Le Matin , 14 July 1909;

A. T. Wassilieff, Police russe et révolution , trans. Henri Thies (Paris: Editions de la Nouvelle Revue Critique, 1936), 16, 23; P. Zavarzine, Souvenirs d'un chef de l'Okhrana , trans. J. Jeanson (Paris: Payot, 1930), 42. Maurice Laporte suggests a somewhat larger operation in Histoire de l'Okhrana (Paris: Payot, 1935). On the Okhrana files, see table of contents to Register, Russia, Departament Politsii: Zagranichnaia Agentura , Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace.

44. AN F7 14605, 19 June 1914 ("Note" and "Los sociétés italiennes dans les Alpes-Maritimes"). There is also a good discussion of an earlier spy case involving an Italian general in Maurice Baumont, Au coeur de l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris: Editions Mondiales, 1976), 46-56.

45. MAE Affaires diverses politiques Allemagne 38 bis, 18 November 1889 (Préfecture de police to Sûreté générale and then apparently forwarded to MAE); APP BA 1333, January 1888 (sent 10 January 1888), 1 January 1888, 31 (December?) 1887; APP BA 1693, 28 July 1892. See also Alan Mitchell, "The Xenophobic Style," The Journal of Modern History 52 (September 1980): 417-18. The role of a German political police operating independently of German intelligence is difficult to delineate. The revelations about Haupt disclosed that such a police was tracking socialists abroad, a discovery confirmed in Fricke, Bismarcks Prätorianer . There are also a number of reports in French archives on German police intrigues with Russian revolutionaries in Switzerland. All are clustered in the late 1880s and in 1890 and are rather sketchy, although they do suggest that there might be some substance to the press charges against Krüger at the time of the Haupt affair. Gempp notes that Krüger was removed from his position in 1890 and not replaced. Most likely, as Fricke suggests, German police agents abroad were mainly concerned with socialist circles and their numbers were probably limited. See AN F7 12519/12520A, 14 April 1887, 23 (?) April 1887, 23 May 1890, 29 May 1890, 19 August 1890; APP BA 1745, 21 June 1890, 23 August 1890; MA RW5/654, p. 272.

46. MAE Affaires diverses politiques Allemagne 50, 28 March 1894, 30 March 1894.

47. Ibid., 7 March 1894, 16 March 1894, 24 April 1894. For a good discussion of the pursuit of spies, spy mania, and some real cases at the time of the Dreyfus affair see Baumont, Coeur , 13-79.

48. APP BA 1332, 13 September 1873; APP BA 1745, 23 June 1890.

49. APP BA 1332, 11 August 1882.

50. See, e.g., material in boxes APP BA 1745; APP BA 1332; APP BA 1333; AN F7 12641; Mitchell, "Xenophobic."

51. AN F7 12644, 12 August 1897; APP BA 1333, 12 November 1891. There are many other telegrams in these boxes, as well as in AN F7 12645 and APP BA 1332, APP BA 1334.

52. Mitchell, "Xenophobic"; Jean Jacques Becker, Le carnet B (Paris: Klincksieck, 1973).

53. Becker, Carnet . For statistics on eastern France see 155-60.

54. See chapter 2.

55. See especially on this point William D. Irvine, The Boulanger Affair Reconsidered: Royalism, Boulangism, and the Origins of the Radical Right in France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 33, 78.

56. Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1984), 38-46; Gordon Wright, France in Modern Times , 3d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 112.

57. Lanoir, Espionnage allemand ; Paul Mahalin, Les espions de Paris (Paris: Librairie Illustrée, 1897), 234, 302; Paul d'Ivoi and Royet, La patrie en danger: histoire de la guerre future (Paris: H. Geffroy, 1905), 254, 814; AN F7 12644, 19 October 1888; APP BA 1745, 6 May 1890.

58. Ian Nish, "Japanese Intelligence and the Approach of the Russo-Japanese War" in The Missing Dimension: Governments and Intelligence Communities in the Twentieth Century , ed. Christopher Andrew and David Dilks (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 25, 29.

59. La Patrie , 21 June 1905; Rudeval, Etude , 21, 33, 41, 78; Routier, L'espionnage , 51; Pierre Giffard, Lunes rouges et dragons noirs (Paris: Librairie Félix Juven, 1906); D'Ivoi and Royet, Patrie , 1007.

60. Lewal, Etudes , 1:29, 73-74, 120; Lieutenant-colonel Rollin, Le service des renseignements militaires en temps de paix (Paris: Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, 1908), 41-42.

61. Navarre, Service , 15. In the second stage of the fighting, Gambetta and Freycinet did establish a bureau des reconnaissances , whose responsibilities included destruction of German communication lines: Howard, Franco-Prussian War , 243.

62. Christopher Andrew, "France and the German Menace," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 132, 135; Mitchell, "Xenophobic," 416.

63. According to an archivist at the SHAT, the Deuxième Bureau's operational records no longer exist.

64. Navarre, Service , 16; Guy Chapman, The Dreyfus Case (New York: Reynal and Company, 1955), 49.

65. Christopher Andrew, "Codebreakers and Foreign Offices: The French, British, and American Experience," in Missing Dimension , ed. Andrew and Dilks, 33-42; Andrew, "German Menace"; Jan Karl Tanenbaum, "French Estimates of Germany's Operational War Plans," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May; Navarre, Service , 18.

66. MA RW5/654, pp. 302-3.

67. Navarre, Service , 17.

68. SHAT, 7N 2501, 24 October 1925 ("Fonctionnement"). The reporter here was Andlauer.

69. Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 2.

70. In addition to Danrit, L'invasion noire , see also Paul d'Ivoi, L'espion X. 323: le canon du sommeil (Paris: A. Méricant, 1909).

71. Rollin, Service , 79-80.

72. Max Ronge, Espionnage: douze années au service des renseignements , trans. Adrien Vochelle (Paris: Payot, 1932), 18, 24-28, 37-38, 47-57. Ronge worked with Austro-Hungarian intelligence. See also Norman Stone, "Austria-Hungary," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 37-61; William C. Fuller, Jr., "The Russian Empire," in ibid.

71. Rollin, Service , 79-80.

73. J. Kim Munholland, "The French Response to the Vietnamese Nationalist Movement, 1905-1914," The Journal of Modern History 47 (December 1975): 674; AN F7 12894, 10 December 1907; Archives d'Outre-mer, Paris,

Slotform (hereafter, OM SL) III 56, n. d. On Morocco see the last section of this chapter and on Japanese spy networks see chapter 4. On the Great Game there is Kipling's incomparable Kim , although this gives an exaggerated picture. See also Peter Hopkirk, The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia (New York: Kodansha, 1992); Andrew, Secret Service , 5, 11; Gerald Morgan, "Myth and Reality in the Great Game; Asian Affairs 60 (February 1973): 55-65; L. P. Morris, "British Secret Service Activity in Khorossan, 1887-1908," The Historical Journal 27 (September 1984): 657-75; Alastair Lamb, Britain and Chinese Central Asia: The Road to Lhasa, 1767-1905 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960), x. On the Middle East see H. V. F. Winstone, The Illicit Adventure (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982), 3-123. Winstone has written a very interesting book, but the picture he provides may appear overdone to some.

74. "Espionnage," Grande encyclopédie; Le Journal , 24 September 1897; Le Petit Parisien , 9 September 1886, 2 March 1888, 10 December 1888; L'Evénement , 22 February 1885; Lewal, Etudes , 1:99-102; Violle, L'espionnage ; Rudeval, Etude , 77-78. Paul d'Ivoi wrote two spy novels whose protagonist is the master spy X 323: Canon , and L'espion X 323: l'homme sans visage (Paris: A. Méricant 1909). In the latter he says of his hero: "But what is particularly unusual about this spy is his honesty. He signals his actions, warning his adversaries that he is on their trail. . . . My very honorable spy is completely disinterested," 3. In Patrie , d'Ivoi and Royet write of German spies: "On the other bank of the Rhine, all administrative fondness is centered on a single bacillus: that of espionage, the hideous leprosy through which Germany hopes to conquer the universe and which, in reality, has lowered character, killed nobility, bankrupted devotedness," 252-53. The evil/dishonorable spy theme is particularly strong in the spy novels. See also Mahalin, Espions ; Danrit, Yellow . For an interesting counterpoint, see Gempp's discussion of the psychological difficulty for German officers who disliked spying but were assigned to intelligence work: MA RW5/ 657, 47-48. French espionage in the days of Napoleon was favorably looked upon. See Paul Muller, L'espionnage militaire .

75. Stone, "Austria-Hungary," 41; Ronge, Espionnage , 309.

76. Ronge, Espionnage , 164, 171-72, 226-28.

77. For Germany: Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 36, 39; for England: Andrew, Secret Service , 138, 169, 174. Andrew numbers MI1b's staff at eighty-four by war's end. This was the military's code breaking unit. He does not give a figure for the Admiralty's more celebrated unit, Room 40.

78. Georges Ladoux, Les chasseurs d'espions (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1932), 197; Navarre, Service , 19; Tillet, Coulisses , 32; SHAT 7N 1082, 13 July 1917.

79. SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925; Andrew, Secret Service , 144-45.

80. Ronge, Espionnage , 64, 94-95; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 35; P.-Louis Rivière, Un centre de guerre secrète: Madrid, 1914-1918 (Paris: Payot, 1936); Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 3 and 138.

81. Trevor Wilson, The Myriad Faces of War: Britain and the Great War, 1914-1918 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986), 364-66; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 34-35.

82. SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925; Tillet, Coulisses , 24.

83. Andrew, Secret Service , 141, 156-61, 168-71; Tillet, Coulisses ; SHAT 16N 1303, 1304.

84. Navarre, Service , 20-21.

85. SHAT 16N 916 ("Relève chronologique et analyse succincte concernant le service des renseignements"); ibid. ("Contre-espionnage: répertoire chronologique des notes, instructions, ou directives d'ordre général"); Nicolai, Forces , 125-26; George Hill, Go Spy the Land: Being the Adventures of I. K. 8 of the British Secret Service (London: Cassell, 1932; translated by Lucien Thomas as Ma vie d'espion [I.K. 8] [Paris: Payot, 1933], 61-68). On Hill's credibility, see Andrew, Secret Service , 215-16. Andrew also notes that the British sent only a handful of agents by air, and these by balloon, 161-62.

84. Navarre, Service , 20-21.

86. Paul Ignatieff, Ma mission en France , (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1933), 123-33. The book was published posthumously from the author's notes.

87. SHAT 16N 916 ("Relève chronologique"); MA RW5/70 (Gempp), pp. 47-58.

88. SHAT 16N 916 ("Contre-espionnage"); Tillet, Coulisses , 22; Ladoux, Chasseurs , 173-74. On ink see SHAT 16N 1589, 23 December 1915. The identification of semen is in Andrew, Secret Service , 149.

89. SHAT 16N 1589, 6 October 1915.

90. The first parrot story is reported in Richard Wilmer Rowan, Spy and Counterspy: The Development of Modern Espionage (New York: Viking Press, 1928), 87-88. There is a good discussion of the use of carrier pigeons in the war in Andrew, Secret Service , 142-43, 161-65. See also Illustration , 18 April 1936; Bauermeister, La guerre dans l'ombre: souvenirs d'un officier du service secret du haut commandement allemand , trans. Th. Lacaze (Paris: Payot, 1933), 62-66; Nicolai, Forces , 125-26. The Japanese pigeon story is from Jacques Deval, Rives pacifiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1937), 119-20. The parakeet story is from the Syracuse Post-Standard , 9 July 1991, and the Cher Ami story comes from another issue of the same paper, in an article by Isabel Wolseley (unfortunately my alertness in cutting it out after breakfast was not equaled by attention to marking the date of the clipping). For discussions of the espionage uses of carrier pigeons before the war, see Le Petit Parisien , 11 December 1890; Rollin, Service , 127-28.

91. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 711, 18 December 1933, p. 143 ("Projet de note pour Monsieur Blanchet").è

92. Service historique de la marine, Paris (hereafter, MM) SSM40, 17 September 1915, 20 December 1915; SHAT 16N 916 ("Contre-espionnage"); SHAT 16N 1589, 13 September 1915, 10 April 1916; Emanuel Victor Voska and Will Irwin, Spy and Counterspy (New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1940) 18-19. The discussion of the Jewish gang is in L. Lacaze, Adventures d'un agent secret franais, 1914-1918 (Paris: Payot, 1934), 145.

93. The imagery is taken from Fussell, Abroad , 31-36.

94. Ronge, Espionnage , 47-48, 56, 86-87, 199-200; SHAT 7N 926, 15 May 1917; SHAT 16N 916 ("Relève chronologique"; "Contre-espionnage"); Max Wild, Mes aventures dans le service secret, 1914-1918 , trans. Lucien Thomas (Paris: Payot, 1932), 138-48; SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925; Lettow-Vorbeck, Weltkriegspionage , 306.

95. The source for the following discussion is Rivière, Centre , 99-106. Rivière was a magistrate who worked in French cryptography during the war (see the preface to the book by Maxime Weygand). This background and the book's style of presentation make the author's account credible.

96. SHAT 7N 2105 (telegram initially received by MAE on 5 August 1921).

97. See below, chapter 3.

98. Rivière, Centre , 60-71; Georges Ladoux, Mes souvenirs (contre-espionnage) (Paris: Editions de France, 1937), 53-105; Andrew, Secret Service , 115-20; SHAT 7N 926, 20 October 1917, 27 April 1918 (on Norway).

99. Ladoux, Souvenirs , 119; AN F7 12895, 31 December 1917 (on Lugano).

100. SHAT 16N 1589, 4 March 1916, 8 April 1916, 10 April 1916.

101. W. Somerset Maugham, "Miss King," in Collected Short Stories (London: Pan Books, 1976; originally published as Ashenden [London: William Heinemann, 1928]), 3:26-27.

102. SHAT 7N 1082, 10 (16?) June 1918, 20 June 1918, 10 May 1918 (on Bratsaloff; Turkish agents); SHAT 7N 1590, 30 March 1918. See also SHAT 7N 1590, 27 March 1918; Lacaze, Aventures , 144; SHAT 16N 1589, 11 February 1916; Ignatieff, Mission , 81, 93; Frank G. Weber, Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the Diplomacy of the Turkish Alliance, 1914-1918 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970), 180-81; William L. Cleveland, Islam Against the West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985), 91.

103. SHAT 5N 284, 7N 1590.

104. Lacaze, Aventures , 147-49, 206-14.

105. AN F7 12896, 19 October 1918.

106. Christopher Sykes, Wassmuss: "The German Lawrence" (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1936); Bernard Vernier, La politique islamique de l'Allemagne (Paris: Patti Hartmann, 1939), 12; Robert Boucard, Les dessous de l'intelligence service (Paris: Editions Documentaires, 1937), 195; Vu et Lu , 28 July 1937, p. 1012.

107. The best account on covert operations in the western hemisphere is Katz, Secret War , especially 328-67, 395-441. See also Rivière, Centre , 31-33, 110-14 (111-12 on Arnold); Barbara W. Tuchmann, The Zimmerman Telegram (New York: Ballantine, 1979), especially 66-87; Roger Lancelyn Green, A. E. W. Mason (London: Max Parrish, 1952), 149-52 (on the German radio station).

108. See below, chapter 4.

109. For general overviews see Vernier, Politique , 9-24; Fritz Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (New York: Norton, 1967), 120-31. Fischer also describes German subversion in the Russian empire, 132-54. See also Frank G. Weber, Eagles ; Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968). On Turkish secret service see Philip Hendrick Stoddard, "The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary study of the Teskilat-I Mahsusa" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1963), 69, 102-17. On Persia and Afghanistan see Ulrich Gehrke, Persien in der deutschen Orientpolitik während des ersten Weltkrieges (Stuttgart: W.

Kohlhammer, 1960); Renate Vogel, Die Persien- und Afghanistanenexpedition (Osnabrück: Biblio, 1976); Oskar von Niedermayer, Unter der Glutsonne Irans: Kriegserlebnisse der deutschen Expedition nach Persien und Afghanistan (Munich: Einhorn-Verlag, 1925), 14-15 (on Romania and the circus cover); Sykes, Wassmuss (Sykes also recounts the story of Niedermayer's baggage, 50-51). On Latin American agents and von Kalle, see Katz, Secret War , 400, 423-24; Rivière, Centre , 34-35. On Indochina see OM SLIII 56 (26-page report).

110. Paul Allard, La guerre des espions (Paris: Flammarion, 1936), 81-82.

111. SHAT 7N 2105, 15 September 1921, 24 November 1921, 7 December 1921 (''shady and suspect"), 21 June 1922, 1 December 1922, 2 February 1921; SHAT 3H 102, 25 January 1922; OM SLIII 92, 8 August 1922; AN F7 13413, 12 October 1925.

112. Edmund Burke, Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).

113. Edmund Burke, "Pan-Islam and Moroccan Resistance to French Colonial Penetration, 1900-1912," Journal of African History , 13 (1972): 97-118. On pan-Islam: Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey , 2d ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 340-43; N. R. Keddie, "Pan-Islam as Proto-Nationalism," The Journal of Modern History 41 (1969): 17-28; Jacob M. Landau, The Politics of Pan-Islam: Ideology and Organization (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), chaps. 1 and 2; Stoddard, "Ottoman Government," 4, 9-12, 78-87. I am indebted to the Burke article for calling my attention to Keddie and Stoddard.

114. Pierre Guillen, L'Allemagne et le Maroc de 1870 à 1905 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1967), 55, 136-50, 372-80, 497-98; Burke, Prelude , 32-33. For government reports on gunrunning: AN F7 12836; MAE NS Maroc 175; MM SSEa4, especially the report dated 22 June 1912 (from Capitaine de vaisseau de Marliave). OPDR stood for Oldenburg-Portugiesische-Dampfschiffs-Reederei. The Woermann Line's principal trade in Africa was with west Africa south of Morocco. In addition to the good discussion in Guillen see Karl Brackmann, Fünfzig Jahre deutscher Afrikaschifffahrt. Die Geschichte der Woermann-Linie und der Deutschen Ost-Afrika-Linie (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1935); Dirk Bavendamm et al., Wagnis Westafrika. Die Geschichte eines Hamburger Handelshauses, 1837-1987 (Hamburg: Verlag Hanseatischer Merkur, 1987).

115. Eugene Staley, "Mannesmann Mining Interests and the Franco-German Conflict Over Morocco," Journal of Political Economy 40 (1932), especially on German official exasperation with Mannesmann pigheadedness. Also on Mannesmanns: Claus Herbert Mannesmann, Die Unternehmungen der Brüder Mannesmann in Marokko (Würzburg: Richard Mayr, 1931), Forward, 17-26; David Henry Slavin, "Anticolonialism and the French Left: Opposition to the Rif War 1925-1926" (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1982), 13-21, 27-28; Neil Sherwood Lewis, "German Policy in Southern Morocco During the Agadir Crisis of 1911" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1977), 27-28, 94-100, 154-55, 157ff.; MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 11, 18 June 1920 (on arms depot and geological expeditions); MAE NS Maroc 178,

6 November 1913, p. 30; MAE NS Maroc 226, 28 August 1912, p. 13; SHAT 7N 1200, 7 November 1913, 18 March 1914; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919 ("L'action allemande au Maroc"), pp. 4-7; Burke, Prelude , 103, 140, 249; Louis Maurice, La politique marocaine de l'Allemagne (Paris: Plon, 1916). On other German intrigues see ibid; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919 ("L'action") 2-7; Guillen, Allemagne , 56, 403, 405, 518-19; MAE NS Maroc 280, 7 June 1911, pp. 70-72; Douglas Porch, The French Foreign Legion: A Complete History of the Legendary Fighting Force (New York: Harper Perennial, 1992), 326-33; Fischer, Germany's Aims , 121-24; Robert Lewis Melka, "Max Freiherr von Oppenheim: Sixty Years of Scholarship and Political Intrigue in the Middle East," Middle Eastern Studies 9 (January 1973): 81-93.

116. Edmund Burke, "Moroccan Resistance, Pan-Islam, and German War Strategy, 1914-1918," Francia 3 (1975): 434-64; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919 ("Rapport du commissaire résident général").

117. MM SSEa4, 16 August 1915, 16 September 1915, 29 December 1915; SHAT 3H 108 July 1918 ("Liste des principaux allemands dans la zone espagnole du Maroc").

118. Guillen, Allemagne , 405; Burke, "Moroccan," 447; Albert Bartels, Fighting the French in Morocco , trans. H. J. Stenning (London: Alston Rivers, 1932).

119. SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919; Rivière, Centre , 26.

120. Burke, "Moroccan"; SHAT 3H 108, July 1918 ("Liste"), 4 July 1919; SHAT 7N 2122, 20 April 1915, 26 April 1915 (Huot note forwarded to MAE), 3 June 1915.

121. OM Affaires politiques 905; SHAT 7N 2122, 3H 108.

122. Burke, "Moroccan"; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919; Bartels, Fighting ; SHAT 7N 2105, 28 September 1918.

123. SHAT 7N 2122, Huot note.

124. On this affair see SHAT 7N 2122, 14, 16, 17, 20, 30 April 1915, 11 May 1915, 1 July 1915, 12 November 1915. Regenratz, whose real name was otherwise, was taken from an Italian liner coming from Argentina. There is no indication that this is the same person as the Regendanz referred to in Fischer, Germany's Aims , 131, or in Fritz Fischer, Griff nach der Weltmacht (Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1961), 146.

125. Burke, "Moroccan"; SHAT 7N 2122 (Huot note); MM SSEa4, 12, 25 July 1917, 20, 21 September 1917 (Castex reports).

126. SHAT 7N 2122, 3 June 1915.

127. There are many reports from the first years of the 1920s on grand plots for global insurrections that would reconstitute wartime alliances or bridge these with new revolutionary forces to crack open the British and French empires. They can be found in OM Affaires politiques 902, 907 bis, 923; SHAT 7N 2105. See also Rif war dossiers for reports of former German intelligence agents in Spain during the First World War now to be found in the camp of the rebels or of several hundred German officers securing passage via the port of Genoa—a warning strikingly similar to Regenratz's wartime revelations of infiltration itineraries passing through that city (SHAT 3H 102, 1 September

1925, 7 June 1925). For down-to-earth qualifications of these, see David Woolman, Rebels in the Rif (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 151; Slavin, "Anticolonialism," 234; SHAT 3H 102, 25 August 1925. On Morocco reports during World War I placing intrigues in a broader, global perspective see SHAT 7N 2122, 21 October 1914, 8 October 1915; OM Affaires politiques 907 bis, 14 November 1914, 16 December 1914, 28 October 1916.

128. On Rüggeberg and German wartime intelligence see Robert H. Whealey, Hitler and Spain (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1989), 149.è

129. See especially the 237-page exhaustive analysis of Fascist subversion of the Italian community in Morocco forwarded by Noguès: AN F60 201, 21 December 1938 ("La politique italienne en zone franaise du Maroc").

130. See the materials on the Bayda brothers (Baydaphone) and Theodore K. in AN F60 707, 25 July 1938, 2 May 1939; OM Affaires politiques 3435, 15 November 1937, p. 433.

131. Estimates of radio sets in the Arab world (including those owned by Europeans) totaled several hundred thousand by the late 1930s. Approximately one-fifth of the twenty-eight thousand receivers in Morocco belonged to Muslims, although collective listening practices like the attachment of radios to card loudspeakers significantly expanded the potential audience. Italy's Radio Bari and Germany's Radio Zeesen were the leaders in programming. The British countered with Radio Daventry and the French with Radio-Colonial, later Radio-Mondial, as well as attempts to jam the signals of others with repeated telegraph messages to a fake ship-at-sea. Materials on the guerre des ondes can be found in OM Affaires politiques 920, 1425; AN F60 707, 710, 753, 754; and MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1240A. See also the following three articles: Daniel J. Grange, "La propagande arabe de Radio-Bari (1937-1939)," Relations internationales 5 (1976): 65-103; Daniel J. Grange, "Structure et techniques d'une propagande: les émissions arabes de Radio-Bari," Relations internationales 2 (1974): 165-85; Callum A. MacDonald, "Radio Bari: Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle East and British Countermeasures 1934-1938," Middle Eastern Studies 13 (May 1977): 195-207.

132. On Comintern activities see OM Affaires politiques 902, 12 October 1933; OM Affaires politiques 3435, 14 August 1936 (BRQM, annexe no. 1). The Bulletins de renseignements des questions musulmanes, or BRQMs, were put out by the Etat-major de l'armée, section d'outre-mer.

133. Cleveland, Islam , especially 39-40, 62-63, 134-59. For a sampling of French reports on Arslan see OM Affaires politiques 1416, 1 January 1937; AN F60 201, 21 December 1938; OM Affaires politiques 1425, 16 May 1938 (BRQM, p. 208); OM Affaires politiques 3435, 12 March 1936 (BRQM, p. 49).

134. Nicolai, Forces , 216.