1. Occident , November 6, 1889. One occasionally finds evangelists in the field encountering Christian Scientists; see, for example, Lizzie Miller, The True Way (Los Angeles: author, 1895), 209-11.

2. Occident , June 28, 1899. An August 10, 1881 article in the Occident is the earliest reference I have found to non-western religions or philosophies as potential competitors with Protestantism (setting aside, that is, the derogatory stereotypes that recur throughout our period). There are extensive criticisms of the new movements in the California Christian Advocate from 1905 to 1909. The editors of this paper lumped all the new movements together in one comment (November 12, 1908):

We are living in a great religious movement; we may add, a great religiopsychological movement, the Christian Science, the theosophy, mental healings of innumerable kinds, the alleged miraculous speaking with tongues, the holy rollers, the holy jumpers, and a vast deal of phenomena we cannot understand, and for that very reason the greatest care should be taken to hold onto the truth.

They went on to say that the subconscious mind "has the charm of the mystical and wierd [ sic ] power of hypnotism, and it is dangerous to introduce it into personal religious problems."

3. Robert V. Hine, California's Utopian Colonies , 51.

4. Ibid., 44, on Otis; and see the Occident , June 28, 1899.

3. Robert V. Hine, California's Utopian Colonies , 51.

4. Ibid., 44, on Otis; and see the Occident , June 28, 1899.

5. Clara Burdette, Robert Burdette and His Message (Philadelphia: John C. Winston/Clara Vista Press, 1922).

6. See Raymond J. Cunningham, "From Holiness to Healing: The Faith Cure in America 1872-1892," Church History 43 (1974): 499-513. Cunningham identifies healing as the most prominent expression of holiness, before glossolalia emerged as the "sign" of Pentecost. He traces the development from the Boston homeopath Charles Cullis, who in 1862 received the "second blessing" of holiness and was called to his ''Faith Work," a home for consumptives on Beacon Hill. His actual faith healing began after 1870, and in 1874 he started summer Faith Conventions—holiness camp meetings with at least one healing service. At the 1881 convention Albert B. Simpson was convinced of the new practice and incorporated di-

vine healing into his program in a New York City Presbyterian church. The Baptist holiness preacher, Adironam Judson Gordon of Boston, became a trustee of Cullis's Faith Work; his influence on the holiness movement is well known. Cullis's Faith Cures (1879) and A. J. Gordon's Ministry of Healing (1882) were highly instrumental in spreading news of the work. John Dowie's "Divine Healing," a slightly different approach, received a hearing in California for eight months in 1888; see his American First Fruits (San Francisco: Leaves of Healing, 1889).

7. Pond, Gospel Pioneering , 179. For an account of Protestant responses to Christian Science nationwide, see Raymond J. Cunningham, "The Impact of Christian Science on the American Churches, 1880-1910," American Historical Review 72 (April 1967): 885-905.

8. I will not deal here with those who entirely left the traditional denominations, but one example is worth mentioning: Fenwicke Holmes, brother of the Ernest Holmes who founded the Church of Religious Science in Los Angeles in 1917. Fenwicke was founder and pastor of a Congregational church in Venice, then a rather wealthy beach community near Los Angeles. He ministered there for six years beginning in 1911. During that time he became more interested in New Thought and related philosophies and gradually introduced the new ideas into his ministry. Finally he decided it would be more appropriate for him to leave the traditional pastorate, so he became a New Thought lecturer, first in California, then in the East. The significance of this example is that, as Fenwicke admits, his parishioners were being exposed to New Thought whether he acknowledged it to them or not, while he was doing traditional preaching and supervising church activities. How common this sort of development might have been is difficult to ascertain, as most ministers left no such records. See the biographical material in Fenwicke Holmes, Ernest Holmes: His Life and Times (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1970).

9. Charles Edward Locke, "Eddyism: Is It Christian? Is It Scientific? How Long Will It Last?," West Coast Magazine 9 (March 1911), 483-98, and 10 (April, May, June 1911), 53-64, 177-92, 305-20. The magazine published a reply in July (vol. 10, pp. 433-44) by a local Scientist, Edward W. Dickey: "Christian Science: The Truth About It." Locke seems to be stating and expanding every negative comment made about the Scientists. Most writings content

themselves with brief disparaging remarks; see, for example, Eliza M. Otis, "Lay Sermons," in California "Where Sets the Sun" (Los Angeles: Times-Mirror, 1905), 165.

10. Locke, "Eddyism," 312.

11. Ibid., 487.

10. Locke, "Eddyism," 312.

11. Ibid., 487.

12. Charles Reynolds Brown, My Own Yesterdays (Boston: 1931); in this memoir he does not mention his encounter with Christian Science.

13. Brown was a liberal in that he accepted biblical criticism and the Social Gospel, but still held to the divinity of Christ--more like Beecher or Brooks in theology, rather than Unitarian in tendencies.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

14. Brown, Faith and Health (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1910), 56, 71-85, 188; the quotation is from p. 85.

15. Ibid., 59-61.

16. Ibid., 194-95.

17. Ibid., 141-67. The Emmanuel Movement, founded by a minister and a doctor in Boston, had introduced some psychological practices in the form of counseling and suggestion into the program of an Episcopal church. The movement was a response to Christian Science's healing appeal; but unlike the Scientists, Emmanuel's practitioners worked closely with regular physicians and would not take any patients without medical recommendations. For an overview, see John Gardner Greene, "The Emmanuel Movement, 1906-1929," New England Quarterly 7 (1934): 494-532.

18. Ibid., 105.

19. Ibid., 106, 108, 112, 178-93.

20. Ibid., 122-23.

21. Ibid., 125-26.

22. James M. Campbell, What Christian Science Means and What We Can Learn From It (New York: Abingdon Press, 1920), 69.

23. Ibid., 109.

22. James M. Campbell, What Christian Science Means and What We Can Learn From It (New York: Abingdon Press, 1920), 69.

23. Ibid., 109.

24. James M. Campbell, New Thought Christianized (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1917), 74.

25. Ibid., 96, 100.

24. James M. Campbell, New Thought Christianized (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1917), 74.

25. Ibid., 96, 100.

26. Parker, Mind Cure , passim.

27. James M. Campbell, The Presence (New York: Eaton and Mains, 1911), 171.

28. Ibid., 30.

27. James M. Campbell, The Presence (New York: Eaton and Mains, 1911), 171.

28. Ibid., 30.

29. Campbell, Christian Science , 46.

30. See Benjamin Fay Mills, "Why I Became a Liberal in Reli-

gion'' (Oct. 9, 1898), Twentieth Century Religion , vol. 1 (Boston: Morris Lefcowitch, 1898), no. 2. For examples of his earlier work, see Victory Through Surrender: Plain Suggestions Concerning Entire Consecration (Chicago: Fleming H. Revell, 1892), and God's World and Other Sermons (Chicago: Fleming H. Revell, 1894). The volume Victory Through Surrender appears to have been mildly influenced by holiness ideas.

31. See the brief account in George William Haskell, "Formative Factors in the Life and Thought of Southern California Congregationalism, 1850-1908" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1947), 154-55.

32. H. H. Bell, A Modern Task, or the Story of the Religious Activities of the Committee of One Hundred (San Francisco, 1916), 59-60.

33. Among these, the Twentieth Century Religion series printed in Boston stands out (it should not be confused with the later Oakland series under the same title).

34. In one sermon, "What is Theosophy?", Twentieth Century Religion (Oakland [1902?]), Mills states that "My mental and spiritual indebtedness to Theosophy is a considerable one" (20). His treatment of Theosophy is quite extensive and shows considerable study.

35. Benjamin Fay Mills, The Divine Adventure (Los Angeles, 1907), 170-71.

36. Ibid., 119; see the continuing discussion, 121-27.

35. Benjamin Fay Mills, The Divine Adventure (Los Angeles, 1907), 170-71.

36. Ibid., 119; see the continuing discussion, 121-27.

37. "The Problem of Evil" (Dec. 5, 1898), Twentieth Century Religion , vol. 1 (Boston), no. 10, p. 5.

38. Mills, Divine Adventure , 193-95.

39. Mills, "The Divinity of Man," Twentieth Century Religion (Oakland), 16.

40. Mills, Divine Adventure , 208. For example, he says in his analysis of "The Model Prayer" that "May Thy Kingdom come" means " May the ideal become actual; May we bring the God within into perfect harmony with the God without " (ibid., 199).

41. Ibid., 9-13.

39. Mills, "The Divinity of Man," Twentieth Century Religion (Oakland), 16.

40. Mills, Divine Adventure , 208. For example, he says in his analysis of "The Model Prayer" that "May Thy Kingdom come" means " May the ideal become actual; May we bring the God within into perfect harmony with the God without " (ibid., 199).

41. Ibid., 9-13.

39. Mills, "The Divinity of Man," Twentieth Century Religion (Oakland), 16.

40. Mills, Divine Adventure , 208. For example, he says in his analysis of "The Model Prayer" that "May Thy Kingdom come" means " May the ideal become actual; May we bring the God within into perfect harmony with the God without " (ibid., 199).

41. Ibid., 9-13.

42. See the brief account in "Builders of the Commonwealth," Touring Topics 24 (May 1932): 17. Widney's own descriptions of his life can be found in The Three Americas: Their Racial Past and the Dominant Racial Factors of Their Future (Los Angeles: Pacific Publishing, Times-Mirror Press, 1935), 56-86, supplemented by mate-

rial in Race Life and Race Religions: Modern Light on Their Growth, Their Shaping and Their Future (Los Angeles: Pacific Publishing, 1936). The only biography to date is Carl W. Rand's Joseph Pomeroy Widney: Physician and Mystic , edited by Doris Sanders (Los Angeles: University of Southern California School of Medicine, 1970).

43. Rand, Widney , 52-53.

44. City Mission in 1921 merged with Newman Methodist Church to become the Church of All Nations. It is unclear whether Widney remained an active participant in the new organization. See Edward Drewry Jervey, The History of Methodism in Southern California and Arizona (Nashville, Tenn.: Parthenon Press, 1960), 113.

45. Rand, Widney , 75.

46. Joseph P. Widney, The Way of Life; Holiness Unto the Lord; The Indwelling Spirit; The Baptism of the Holy Ghost (Los Angeles, 1900). The faith cure essay has remained unavailable to me; its existence is mentioned briefly by Rand, Widney , 59-60. Despite Widney's criticism of faith cures, he was very much interested in health issues—as a physician, he would be—and wrote in cooperation with other authors about the healthful geography, climate, and natural advantages of the Los Angeles area.

47. Joseph P. Widney, Race Life of the Aryan Peoples , 2 vols. (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1907); vol. 2, The New World , especially 296-305. On the Scots-Irish, see 106-8. Cf. Three Americas , 32-45.

48. Joseph P. Widney, The Faith that Has Come to Me (Los Angeles: Pacific Publishing, 1932), 94, 132-37.

49. Widney, Aryan Peoples , vol. 2, 109. His otherwise glowing account of the Scots-Irish is dampened only when he notes their tendency to hold onto Calvinism. Methodism, he said, with its "hopeful hymns and scant theology" was a better way. Nevertheless, ecclesiasticism was growing even in the Methodist church. "But," he declared firmly, "the current of Teutonic spiritual life is going the other way" (ibid., 107-8).

48. Joseph P. Widney, The Faith that Has Come to Me (Los Angeles: Pacific Publishing, 1932), 94, 132-37.

49. Widney, Aryan Peoples , vol. 2, 109. His otherwise glowing account of the Scots-Irish is dampened only when he notes their tendency to hold onto Calvinism. Methodism, he said, with its "hopeful hymns and scant theology" was a better way. Nevertheless, ecclesiasticism was growing even in the Methodist church. "But," he declared firmly, "the current of Teutonic spiritual life is going the other way" (ibid., 107-8).

50. The phrase is in Rand, Widney , 107.

51. Widney, Faith , 157; Aryan Peoples , vol. 2, 350.

52. Widney, Faith , 237, 239, 256, 346.

53. Widney, Three Americas , 65.

54. Joseph P. Widney, The Genesis and Evolution of Islam and Judeo-Christianity (Los Angeles: Pacific Publishing, 1932).

55. E.g., Widney, Aryan Peoples , vol. 2, 104; Faith , 163. Widney claimed that a distant forebear of his, from the late Middle Ages, was Jewish; and he spoke out against anti-Semitism and for the Jew (though in a rather condescending way) in Faith , 228-33. In Genesis , he argued that the desert breeds monotheism, while the diversity of the plains and the coast breeds polytheism (17-18).