1. Japanese Consul, San Francisco, to Foreign Ministry, Tokyo, 22 and 25 April 1891, Hokubeigasshukoku * ni okeru honpö jin tokoseigen * oyobi haiseki ikken (Records concerning travel restriction and exclusion of Japanese citizens in the United States) (hereafter cited as Haiseki ikken), 19 unbound vols. (1891-1912), 1, RG 3.8.2.21, DFMJ; Statutes at Large 23:332-33 (1885).

2. Haiseki ikken, 1; Statutes at Large 26:968 (1891). This amendment, passed 3 March 1891, specifically authorized the Treasury Department to inspect alien immigrants at the borders of British Columbia and Mexico, entry points used by some Japanese to circumvent immigration procedures at U.S. port cities on the West Coast.

3. D. W. Stevens to Tateno Gozo * , Minister to the United States, 12 Oct. 1891, Haiseki ikken, 1. On Stevens, see Gaimusho * no hyakunen (One hundred years of the Foreign Ministry), 2 vols. (Tokyo: Foreign Ministry, 1969), 1:592.

4. Japanese Consul, San Francisco, to Foreign Minister, Tokyo, 12 May 1892, Haiseki ikken, 1.

5. Chief, Emigration Bureau, Foreign Ministry, to Ken and Fu Governors, 16 May 1892; Chief, Emigration Bureau, Foreign Ministry, to Governors of Hiroshima-, Wakayama-, and Kumamoto-ken, 25 May 1892, Haiseki ikken, 1.

6. The major works are Thomas A. Bailey, Theodore Roosevelt and the Japanese-American Crisis (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1934); Howard K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956; New York: Collier Books, 1973); William L. Neumann, America Encounters Japan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963); Raymond A. Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and Japan (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966); Charles E. Neu, An Uncertain Friendship: Theodore Roosevelt and Japan, 1906-1909 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967); and Akira Iriye, Pacific Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansion, 1897-1911 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972).

7. Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice, 1-2. The following illustrates Japanese immigration as compared to countries which provided the most immigrants to the U.S. and those whose figures were comparable to Japanese figures. Leonard Dinnerstein and David M. Reimers, Ethnic Americans (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), app. 1.

8. Sucheng Chan analyzes the role of international politics as being "particularly salient" in Asian emigration and immigration. She writes of the "more subtle and complicated" exclusion approach the United States took toward Japan in comparison to its approach toward other nations (Chan, "European and Asian Immigration into the United States in Comparative Perspective, 1820s to 1920s," in Yans-McLaughlin, ed., Immigration Reconsidered, 48 and 62). On U.S. and Japanese foreign policy, see Richard W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (Oxford, England: Blackwell & Mott, 1960; New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1974); Walter LaFeber, The New Empire (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1963); Akira Iriye, Across the Pacific: An Inner History of American-East Asian Relations (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1967); Iriye, Pacific Estrangement; Mikiso Hane, Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Jon Livingston, Joe Moore, and Felicia Oldfather, eds., Imperial Japan (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973); E. H. Norman, Japan's Emergence as a Modern State (1940), in John W. Dower, ed., Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H. Norman (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975); Jon Halliday, A Political History of Japanese Capitalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975); Hilary Conroy, The Japanese Frontier in Hawaii (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1953).

9. The literal translation of the term imin is "a citizen who moves or migrates" and includes both emigrants and immigrants. Hi means "non-" or "other than." After 1908 the Foreign Ministry recorded the ideographs hi or i to designate the imin or hi-imin category of citizens who were issued passports. See Kosekiho * ni yori zaigaihonpojin * shotodokesho sono honsekichi kosekiri e sotatsu * no ikken (Documents concerning notices fried by citizens abroad to be sent to household registry in registered family domicile areas according to household registry law), 43 vols. (1909-1921), RG 3.8.7.21, DFMJ.

10. Statutes at Large 22:58-61 (1882). Chinese government protests against the exclusion acts as well as individual suits in the lower courts and the Supreme Court spanned three decades but failed to pacify anti-Chinese sentiments in the United States (Chan, Asian Americans, 91-92). Takaki interprets this failure as being "symptomatic" of the conflict between white labor and white capital (Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore , 110-111). By 1895 the Chinese government "fully acquiesced" to U.S. policies (Michael H. Hunt, The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914 [New York: Columbia University Press, 1983], 85-114). See also Delbert L. McKee, Chinese Exclusion versus the Open Door Policy, 1900-1906: Clashes over China Policy in the Roosevelt Era (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1977).

11. For instance, see Consul General, New York, to Foreign Ministry, 5 May 1900, Haiseki ikken, 3.

12. Emigration "siphoned off a small stream," not to relieve population pressure but to develop "markets and materials for Japanese industry" (William W. Lockwood, The Economic Development of Japan [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968], 157). Between 1890 and 1924, 1.1 million people, of whom half were imin or seasonal workers, went abroad. The population of Japan was 39.9 million in 1890 and 59.7 million in 1925. Comparative figures of some destinations of Japanese travelers based on travel permits are as follows:

Inoma Kiichi, "Senzen rokujuhachinen * no waga imin tokei * no gaikan" [Overview of Japanese emigration statistics for 68 years prior to World War II], Keisho * ronsan 60 (February 1955), 100.

13. For instance, the magazines Amerika, Tobei zasshi (Crossing to America magazine), and Tobei shimpo * (Crossing to America news); articles in Seiko * (Success); and Shimanuki Hyodayu * and Katayama Sen's tobei publications, among many others. I will consider these works in chapters 5 and 6.

14. Amerika, 12:6 (June 1908), 30.

15. Tobei shimpo * , 1:2 ( June 1907), 9.

16. Tabata Kisaburo * , Zaibeisha seiko * no tomo (The guide to success for Japanese in America) (Tokyo: Shimizu shoten, 1908), 29-30.

17. Imin hogokisoku (Emigrant protection ordinance), 12 April 1894, Horei * zensho (Compendia of laws), 5 vols. (1894), 2, Chokurei (Imperial decrees), 112-15; Imin hogoho * (Emigrant protection law), 7 April 1896, Horei * zensho, 7 vols. (1896), 2, Horitsu * (Laws), 116-20. See also Alan Takeo Moriyama, Imingaisha: Japanese Emigration Companies and Hawaii, 1894-1908 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985), 33-42.

18. Kaigai ryokenkisoku, 1878, Horei * zensho (1878), 193-94. The Passport Law was revised in 1897, 1900, and 1908.

19. Gaikoku ryokenkisoku (Passport regulations for travel abroad), rev., 1897, Horei * zensho, 8 vols. (1897), 4, Shorei * (Ministerial ordinances), 353-54. All individuals engaged in farming, ranching, fishing, mining, manufacturing, engineering, construction, transportation, and domestic services were classified as laborers.

20. Edwin Dun, Tokyo, to W. Q. Gresham, Washington, 13 October 1893, U.S. Department of State, Japanese Emigration and Immigration to American Territory, Correspondence from 1892 to January 29, 1908 (Washington, 1908-09), 9.

21. Ibid., 11. T. V. Powderly, commissioner-general of immigration, wrote that large profits were derived "from commission paid either directly by the immigrant or through the agency of the steamship lines" as well as "solicitations of citizens in this country who wished to avail themselves of cheaper labor." Congress, House of Representatives, Immigration of Japanese, House Doc. 686, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 15 May 1900, 3.

22. Ten thousand yen was equivalent to $5,100. The dollar value of the yen was 51 cents in 1895 and fluctuated around 49.5 cents from 1896 to 1919 (Lockwood, Economic Development, 257, table 21, note a).

23. Kaigai ryokenkisoku ihan zakken (Miscellaneous documents on overseas passport regulation violations), 4 vols. (1900-15), RG 3.8.5.21, DFMJ. This series records approximately 200 official passport offenses, the majority, concerning travelers to the United States. The number of offenses by imin to China, Russia, Korea, and Canada is inconsequential. In 1900-02 (vol. 1) for instance, 33 of 42 recorded passport violations related to imin seeking to emigrate to the United States.

24. Watanabe Kanjiro * , Kaigai dekasegi annai (Guide for workers going abroad) (Tokyo: Tokyo naigai shuppankyokai, 1902), app. 9-15. The literal translation of dekasegi is "earning away from home" and connotes temporary work. There is no English equivalent. Early immigrants to the United States were considered dekasegi, which often is interpreted as "sojourner."

25. Ichihashi, Japanese, 86.

26. Slightly more than 27 percent of the total passports for the United States issued 1891-1914 were returned to the Foreign Ministry. The ratio ranged from a low of 9.5 percent in 1900 to a high of 80 percent in 1909, the year following the Gentlemen's Agreement. These returned passports were the official means by which the government kept track of citizens who remigrated ( Nihonteikoku tokei^{[ *]} nenkan [Annual statistics of the empire of Japan] [hereafter NTN], 1891-1914). Sucheng Chan gave the crude remigration rate of Japanese immigrants, 1909-24, as 33 percent (Chan, "European and Asian Immigration," 38).

27. Aoki Shozo^{[ *]} , Foreign Minister, to Sugimura, Commerce Section, Foreign Ministry, 22 March 1900, Haiseki ikken, 2.

28. According to federal statistics, migration of Japanese from Hawaii to the mainland United States, 1902-05, totaled 20,266. In 1906 the number was 13,578; in 1908, 755; and 1909, 1,106 (cited in Moriyama, Imingaisha, 133). The 1907 order did not specify a country, but its intent was to restrict Japanese with passports to the United States, its territories, or other nations from entering the continental United States (Bailey, Japanese-American Crisis, 142-49).

29. According to Foreign Ministry records, emigration companies supplied only 165 jiyu-imin^{[ *]} to the United States between 1894 and 1898. See Commerce Section, Foreign Ministry, Imin toriatsukainin ni yoru imin no enkaku (History of emigrants using emigrant agents) (Tokyo: 1909), 96-97.

30. William D. Wray, Mitsubishi and the N.Y.K., 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 255-58, 491-504 on government subsidies and 261-66, 408-20 on trans-Pacific route.

31. Wakatsuki, "Japanese Emigration," 478-79.

32. For a contemporary American report on Japanese "money making enterprises," see House of Representatives, Immigration of Japanese, 7-9.

33. NTN, 1896-1900. Moriyama states that as the number of emigrant workers increased, "efficient enforcement" of the law became more difficult (Moriyama, Imingaisha, 41).

34. Aoki to Fu and Ken (excluding Tokyo-fu), 2 Aug. 1900, Haiseki ikken,
3.

35. Head, Commerce Section, Foreign Ministry, to Japanese Consuls, Vancouver BC, San Francisco, Tacoma, and Seattle, 31 July 1900, Haiseki ikken, 3.

36. NTN, 1901. U.S. immigration figures for 1900 and 1901 were 12,628 and 5,269, respectively (Bureau of Immigration, Annual Report, 1900 and 1901).

37. NTN, 1902-1908.

38. Chinda Sutemi to Governor of Hokkaido * , Chief, Tokyo Metropolitan Police Headquarters, and Ken and Fu Governors, Beika tokosha * ni kansuruken (Regarding travelers to the United States and Canada), 7 July 1904, Haiseki ikken, 3. Emigrants in Tokyo-fu had to apply for passports at the Metropolitan Police Headquarters (Gaikoku ryokenkisoku, 1900, Horei * zensho, 11 vols. (1900), 5, Shorei * , 335-38.

39. Compulsory education in Japan was four years, then extended to six in 1908 ( Japan's Modern Educational System, 107-8).

40. Vice-Minister, Foreign Ministry, to Ken and Fu Governors, Gakujutsu shugyo * mokutekitosuru kaigai tokosha * ni kansuruken (Regarding travelers who go abroad as students), 8 November 1905, Haiseki ikken, 3. On early Japanese student emigrants to the United States see Hata, ''Undesireables," 43-67, and Wakatsuki, "Japanese Emigration," 485-95.

41. McKee, Chinese Exclusion, 24.

42. Frank L. Coombs, U.S. Legation, Tokyo, to Mr. Foster, Washington, 7 Oct. 1892, U.S. Department of State, Japanese Emigration, 5.

43. House of Representatives, Immigration of Japanese, 4.

44. Lockwood, Economic Development, 252-58 and 328-34. The British first, then the United States dominated Japanese trade until after World War I.

45. Hayashi Tadasu, Foreign Minister, to Luke E. Wright, Acting Ambassador to Japan, 6 Feb. 1907, Haiseki ikken, 5.

46. Thomas J. O'Brien, American Ambassador to Japan, to Hayashi, 26 November 1907, Nihon gaiko * monjo (Records of the Foreign Ministry of Japan), 40, doc. 2082, 634-37. At the time there were four Japanese consular areas in the United States: New York, which was responsible for seventeen states; Chicago, twenty; San Francisco, four; and Seattle, six.

47. Hayashi to O'Brien, 30 Dec. 1907, Haiseki ikken, 13.

48. Hayashi to O'Brien, 18 Feb. 1908, Haiseki ikken, 13.

49. ". . .all recent war talk has started at the White House" (Aoki, Japanese Ambassador to the United States, to Hayashi, 5 Feb. 1907, Haiseki ikken, 5).

50. "To save face the Japanese now had to attack the fleet, make a counter demonstration, or proclaim their satisfaction with the President's decision as though it had no meaning for Japan. They chose the latter alternative" (Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt, 185).

51. Gaikoku zairyu * teikoku shinmin toroku * kisoku (Regulations regarding registration of imperial citizens abroad), 7 May 1909, Genko * horeishuran * (Existing laws), 2 vols. (Tokyo, 1925), 1,755. The regulation went into effect on April 1, 1910.

52. Gaikoku ryokenkisoku, 1907, Horei * zensho, 4 vols. (1907), 2, Shorei * , 43-47.

53. Kaigai ryokenkafu hennohyo * shintatsu (Passports issued and returned for travel abroad), 204 unbound vols. (1879-1921), RG 3.8.5.8, DFMJ.

54. Gaikoku zairyu * teikoku shinmin toroku * kisokuseitei narabini kaiseijisshi ikken (Documents regarding the enactment and revised enforcement of registration regulations of imperial citizens residing abroad) (1908-1910) RG 3.8.7.20, DFMJ; Gaikoku zairyu * teikoku shinrain toroku * kankei zakken (Miscellaneous documents regarding the registration of imperial citizens residing abroad), (1910) RG 3.8.2.268, DFMJ.

55. Japanese males could be drafted for a three-year military term from ages twenty to thirty-two (revised to thirty-seven in 1910). In order to avoid service entirely, they had to remain abroad twelve years, and after 1910 seventeen years. See Ueda Ryozo * , Kaigaitoko * hosoku * (Laws regarding travel abroad) (Kishiki-gun, 1902), 71; Wakatsuki, "Japanese Emigration," 421-26; Ichihashi, Japanese, 87-88.

56. The Berkeley branch of the Japanese Association protested the institution of fees. Yuji Ichioka, "Japanese Associations and the Japanese Government: A Special Relationship, 1909-1926," Pacific Historical Review 46 (August 1977), 421-22.

57. Hokubeigasshukoku * ryodo * oyobi eiryo * kanada ni tokosuru * imin ni taisuru ryoken kafuhoni * kansuruken (Regarding the issuance of passports to imin who travel to the United States and British Canada), 16 November 1908, Haiseki ikken, 12.

58. Mizuno Kokichi * , Japanese Consul, New York, to Terauchi Masataki, Foreign Minister, 12 Aug. 1908, Haiseki ikken, 12.

59. O'Brien to Hayashi, 25 Jan. 1908, Haiseki ikken, 13.

60. Hayashi to O'Brien, 18 Feb. 1908, Haiseki ikken, 13.

61. In March 1905 approximately 3,000 Japanese, who had purchased about "35,000 acres of land" to cultivate rice, resided near Houston, Texas. U.S. newspapers reported that they were of the "best class, all of them have money" and "superior to much of the white immigrants . . . from Europe during the past five years, more intelligent, more orderly, more industrious and less offensive." See New York Tribune, 22 March 1905; Houston Post, 17 March and 27 April 1905; and Nihonjin kikaishi todoke ni kanshi zainyuyoku * ryoji * yori gujo * ikken (Reports from New York consul concerning notices of intention of naturalization), (1905) RG 3.8.7.15, DFMJ. See also Nyuyoku * ryojikan * hokokusho * (Reports of New York Consul General), 6 unbound vols. (1885-1911), 4, Shisatsu hokoku * (Investigative reports), (1902) RG 6.1.6.6, DFMJ; Kiyoko T. Kurosawa, ''Seito Saibara's Diary of Planting a Japanese Colony in Texas," Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, 2 (August 1964); and Kazuhiko Orii and Hilary Conroy, "Japanese Socialist in Texas: Sen Katayama," Amerasia Journal 8 (Fall/Winter 1981), 163-70.

62. On a petition demanding the elimination of the imin/hi-imin categories, see Consul General, San Francisco, to Foreign Minister, Zaibei nihonjinkai seigansho shintatsu no ken (Regarding submission of written petition by the Japanese Association of America), 4 December 1911, Kaigai tokõ kankei zakken (Miscellaneous documents concerning travel abroad), vol. 6 (unbound), DFMJ.