2 Affirmers and Dissenters
1. As early as 1949 Mary McCarthy, in her novella The Oasis , noted a split in the group—although she labeled it a division between realists and idealists (mostly in the realm of foreign policy, the war, and anti-Communism) rather than affirmers and dissenters. McCarthy portrayed "the realist party" led by Philip Rahv (instead of Hook), and the other circle as "the purist faction" led by Macdonald. See Mary McCarthy, The Oasis [1949] in Cast a Cold Eye & The Oasis (New York: New American Library, 1972), pp. 136-37.
2. Sidney Hook, "The Radical Comedians," American Scholar 54:45-61, Winter 1984-85, p. 46. James Gilbert, Writers and Partisans (New York: Wiley, 1968), p. 175.
3. Daniel Aaron later disagreed with Phillips and Rahv about why Partisan Review was suspended and then reborn. Phillips and Rahv portrayed themselves as tired of proletarian realism and committed to modernism in the mid-1930s, and disgusted at Communist party guidance of their literary magazine. Aaron, however, thought they were actually more sympathetic to proletarian realism than modernism in the early 1930s, and were only critical of the insufficiently good proletarianism in the Party magazines. According to Aaron, their switch to modernism and a revived Partisan Review contained an element of careerism: they felt it was time that they and their generation asserted themselves in a new way. Interviews with Daniel Aaron, Cambridge, Mass., June 16 and September 2, 1986.
4. Letter from Dwight Macdonald to Hook, December 6, 1938, DMP. Letter from Sidney Hook to the author, July 17, 1986. See also Gilbert, Writers and Partisans , pp. 201-3; and Macdonald, Memoirs of a Revolutionist (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1957), p. 13. The Dies committee in
the House of Representatives, chaired by Congressman Martin Dies, investigated leftist political connections in the late 1930s. It was the forerunner of the more famous House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), which was convened in 1947.
5. Letter from Sidney Hook to Richard Rovere, April 2, 1952, in the Norman Thomas Papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations. Used by permission of the New York Public Library.
6. William Barrett, "The Truants: 'Partisan Review' in the 40's," Commentary 57:48-54, June 1974, p. 52.
7. Dwight Macdonald and Clement Greenberg, "Ten Propositions on the War," Partisan Review , July-August 1941, pp. 271-73. Philip Rahv, "Ten Propositions and Eight Errors," Partisan Review , November-December 1941, pp. 499-502.
8. Diana Trilling, "An Interview with Dwight Macdonald," Partisan Review 51(1):799-819, anniversary issue, 1984-85, p. 806. This intellectual struggle over the war is covered in much greater detail in Gilbert, Writers and Partisans , pp. 221-282. It is also apparent from Macdonald's correspondence with others, contained in the Macdonald Papers. See also Irving Howe, "The Dilemma of Partisan Review," The New International , 8(1):20-24, February 1942, pp. 21-22.
9. Interview with Sidney Hook, Wardsboro, Vt., July 15, 1985.
10. Letter from Philip Rahv to Dwight Macdonald, March 30, 1941, DMP.
11. Letter from Philip Rahv to Dwight Macdonald, November 11, 1941, DMP.
12. Quoted in Stephen Whitfield, A Critical American: The Politics of Dwight Macdonald (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1984), p. 51.
13. Sidney Hook, "The Failure of the Left," Partisan Review , 10(2):165-77, March-April 1943, pp. 168-71, 175.
14. Letter from Lewis Coser to Dwight Macdonald, April 20, 1942, DMP.
15. Howe, "The Dilemma of Partisan Review," p. 21.
16. Unprinted statement written by Macdonald, no date (probably in the spring or early summer of 1943), in DMP.
17. Letter from Philip Rahv to Dwight Macdonald, no date, DMP.
18. Letter from William Phillips to Dwight Macdonald, no date, DMP.
19. Comment from Gerald Sykes to Alfred Kazin, in Alfred Kazin's journal (hereafter referred to as AKJ), vol. 4, December 26, 1941. In the Henry W. and Albert A. Berg Collection, The New York Public Library Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. Used by permission of Alfred Kazin and The New York Public Library.
20. Letter from Philip Rahv to Dwight Macdonald, July 28, 1943, DMP.
21. Hook, "The Radical Comedians," pp. 45-46.
22. William Barrett, The Truants (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1982), pp. 83-85.
23. Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1963), p. 394.
24. On the masthead Macdonald printed politics in lowercase, but in his references to it within the magazine and his correspondence he capitalized the first letter: Politics . Conversation with Michael Wreszin, June 15, 1989.
25. According to Michael Wreszin, Nancy Macdonald was a powerful "catalyst" in Dwight's life, and without her he might have remained a Luce man and there might never have been a Politics . Letter from Michael Wreszin to the author, February 27, 1987.
26. Letter from Daniel Bell to the author, October 17, 1986.
27. Letter from Lewis Coser to Dwight Macdonald, August 20, 1943, DMP.
28. Walter W. Powell and Richard Robbins, "Lewis A. Coser: Intellectual and Political Commitments," in Powell and Robbins, eds., Conflict and Consensus: A Festschrift in Honor of Lewis A. Coser (New York: Free Press, 1984), pp. 6-7.
29. Bernard Rosenberg, "An Interview with Lewis Coser," in Powell and Robbins, eds., Conflict and Consensus , pp. 38-39, 50. Interview with Lewis Coser, Wellfleet, Mass., July 19, 1985. Letter from Coser to Macdonald, August 4, 1943, DMP. Letter from Lewis Coser to the author, October 1, 1986. The Shachtmanites were a subgroup of Trotskyists who followed Max Shachtman, an American Trotskyist leader. The Shachtmanites parted company with Trotsky's belief that societies were either capitalist or socialist, and concluded that there was a third possibility: bureaucratic collectivism. Trotsky, however, worried that such a proposal would undermine the Marxist revolutionary outlook. Perhaps it did. See Irving Howe, A Margin of Hope (New York: Harcourt, 1982), pp. 78-89.
30. Irving Howe, "Forming Dissent," in Powell and Robbins, eds., Conflict and Consensus , p. 61.
31. B. Rosenberg, "Interview with Coser," p. 40. Letter from Lewis Coser to Dwight Macdonald, July 22, 1948, DMP. Interview with David Riesman, Cambridge, Mass., November 23, 1984.
32. Interview with David Riesman, Cambridge, Mass., November 23, 1984. Letter from David Riesman to the author, July 27, 1986.
33. Interview with David Riesman, Cambridge, Mass., November 23, 1984.
34. Dwight Macdonald, Discriminations (New York: Grossman, 1974), p. 299. Letter from Dennis Wrong to the author, May 18, 1989.
35. Macdonald, Discriminations , p. 299. Bernard Rosenberg, "Interview with Coser," p. 49.
36. Daniel Bell's contribution to the Richard Hofstadter Project, pp.
32-33; from a transcript of a tape-recorded interview by William Keylor in April 1972 in New York. Columbia University Oral History Research Office, New York. Used by permission of Daniel Bell.
37. For a critical treatment of Schlesinger's political involvement, see Michael Wreszin, "Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., Scholar-Activist in Cold War America: 1946-1956," Salmagundi 63-64:255-85, Spring-Summer 1984.
38. AKJ, vol. 4, March 3, 1944; vol. 7, November 20, 1946, and February 1, 1948.
39. AKJ, vol. 7, May 17, 1948, and November 17, 1948.
40. Irving Howe, Steady Work (New York: Harcourt, 1966), p. 246. Howe, "Forming Dissent," p. 62.
41. Letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, August 1, 1946; and letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, August 12, 1946, DMP.
42. John Dewey, Individualism Old and New (New York: Minton, Balch, 1930), pp. 119-20.
43. John Dewey, Characters and Events , Joseph Ratner, ed. (New York: Holt, 1929), 2:757.
44. Dewey, Individualism Old and New , p. 118.
45. Hook remembered with amusement that Macdonald considered it a compliment if he was accused of being irresponsible; interview with Sidney Hook, Wardsboro, Vt., July 15, 1985. See Hook's sympathetic account of Macdonald in "The Radical Comedians." Hook claimed that he never took Macdonald seriously enough to regard him as a nemesis; letter from Sidney Hook to the author, July 17, 1986.
46. Interview with Irving Howe, New York, June 6, 1985. Hook maintained that Partisan Review had printed Howe's work only in order to get back at Hook. Rahv, Hook said, never liked Hook even when he agreed with him politically—partly because Hook tried to protect Phillips from Rahv. Letter from Sidney Hook to the author, July 17, 1986.
47. Lionel Trilling, "Young in the Thirties," Commentary 41(5): 43-51, May 1966, pp. 45-47; and Trilling, "On the Death of a Friend," Commentary 29(2):93-94, February 1960.
48. Norman Podhoretz, Making It (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 128-29.
49. L. Trilling, "On the Death of a Friend," p. 94.
50. Alexander Bloom, Prodigal Sons: The New York Intellectuals and Their World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), chapter 9. This is a good source for the background and history of Commentary .
51. Letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, August 1, 1946; letter from Macdonald to Howe, August 13, 1946, DMP.
52. Midge Decter, in Bernard Rosenberg and Ernest Goldstein, eds., Creators and Disturbers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), pp. 356-57.
53. Letter from Hannah Arendt to Houghton Mifflin, December 24, 1946. A copy of this letter is in the Dwight Macdonald file, box 11, Hannah Arendt Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
54. AKJ, vol. 7, October 8, 1950.
55. See the intelligent essay on the Frankfurt School by David Held in Tom Bottomore et al., eds., A Dictionary of Marxist Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983); and Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973).
56. Letter from Michael Wreszin to the author, February 27, 1987.
57. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 191-92.
58. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 196-97.
59. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 311-13, 309-10.
60. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 27-28.
61. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 129-31.
62. Macdonald, Memoirs , pp. 5, 197, 201.
63. See Irving Howe, "The Human Factor," The New Republic 200(19):30-34, May 8, 1989.
64. Howe, Margin of Hope , pp. 1-7.
65. Howe, Margin of Hope , pp. 12-13, 22-23. For a good account of Alcove One, see Irving Kristol, "Memoirs of a Trotskyist," in Reflections of a Neoconservative (New York: Basic Books, 1983), pp. 3-13.
66. Robert Brym, Intellectuals and Politics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1980), pp. 14-18, 25, 67, 72-73.
67. Howe, Margin of Hope , p. 9.
68. Mary McCarthy began the autobiographical retrospective with The Company She Keeps (New York: Harcourt, 1942), a gossipy kiss-and-tell collection of stories about the crowd, a novelistic rather than analytical attempt to understand the group. She later published Memories of a Catholic Girlhood (New York: Harcourt, 1957). Alfred Kazin was the first to take an analytical approach to the group, with Starting Out in the Thirties (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962). Norman Podhoretz added his recollections in Making It (1967). Irving Howe offered his view in "A, Memoir of the Thirties," in Steady Work (1966), and "The New York Intellectuals: A Chronicle and a Critique," in Commentary 46(4):29-51, October 1968. In the 1970s and 1980s there have been retrospective books and essays by Lionel Abel, William Barrett, Daniel Bell, Sidney Hook, Irving Howe, Alfred Kazin, Irving Kristol, Mary McCarthy, Norman Podhoretz, and William Phillips, among others.
69. Kazin, Starting Out , p. 4.
70. AKJ, vol. 4, September 17, 1941.
71. AKJ, vol. 4, March 30, 1942.
72. AKJ, vol. 4, February 28, 1942.
73. Irving Howe, Celebrations and Attacks (New York: Horizon, 1979), pp. 12-16, 18, 20.
74. AKJ, vol. 4, February 28, 1942.
75. Howe, Steady Work , pp. 358, 360.
76. Letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, July 2, 1946, DMP. Howe, Margin of Hope , pp. 115-16.
77. Letter from Dwight Macdonald to Irving Howe, July 17, 1948; letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, August 27, 1948, DMP.
78. Howe, A Margin of Hope , p. 59.
79. Howe denied that Hook ever influenced him or the group with his pragmatic orientation. I remain unconvinced. Howe and others in the group moved from ideological to pragmatic outlooks between the 1940s and the 1980s, a course that Hook took ten to fifteen years earlier. Interview with Irving Howe, New York, June 6, 1985.
80. Irving Howe, ''The Rejection of Marxism," Alfred Kazin, "Some Answers," and Robert Gorham Davis, "Some Answers'' (letters to the editor), Commentary 12:388-90, October 1951. Irving Howe, A World More Attractive (New York: Horizon, 1963), p. 265.
81. Howe, World More Attractive , pp. 252, 266-67, 278-79. Howe's article was the major criticism of what became known as the institutionalization of the intellectuals.
82. Howe, letter to the editor, Partisan Review , March-April 1954, p. 239.
83. David Riesman, "Our Country and Our Culture," Partisan Review 19:311-14, May-June 1952, p. 313. Interview with David Riesman, Cambridge, Mass., November 23, 1984.
84. Interview with Bernard Rosenberg, Wellfleet, Mass., July 25, 1985. Howe, Margin of Hope , pp. 211-18. B. Rosenberg, "Interview with Lewis Coser," p. 43.
85. Letter from Sidney Hook to Richard Rovere, April 2, 1952, Norman Thomas Papers. Used by permission of the Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.
86. Interview with Lewis Coser, Wellfleet, Mass., July 9, 1985. Irving Howe, letter to the editor, Commentary , March-April 1954, p. 240. B. Rosenberg, "Interview with Lewis Coser," p. 42.
87. Letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, May 8, 1949, DMP. See Irving Howe, "Magazine Chronicle," Partisan Review 16:416-27, April 1949. Jim Cork had written earlier for the magazine Revolutionary Age .
88. Letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, May 8, 1949, DMP.
89. Letter from Dwight Macdonald to Irving Howe, May 21, 1949, DMP.
90. Letter from Dwight Macdonald to Alfred Kazin, November 26, 1960, DMP. Letter from Alfred Kazin to Dwight Macdonald, November 17, 1960, DMP.
91. Irving Howe, "The First 25 Years," Dissent 26:6, Winter 1979. Howe, A Margin of Hope , pp. 183-84. B. Rosenberg, "Interview with Lewis Coser," p. 41.
92. Lewis Coser, "The First 25 Years," Dissent 26:3-4, Winter 1979. Howe, "Forming Dissent," in Powell and Robbins, eds., Conflict and Consensus , p. 62. Letter from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, March 1, 1953, DMP.
93. Howe, "Forming Dissent," p. 62. Coser, Howe, and Plastrik, in their contributions to "The First 25 Years," pp. 3-6. Interview with Lewis Coser, Wellfleet, Mass., July 9, 1985. Interview with Bernard Rosenberg, Wellfleet, Mass., July 25, 1985.
94. Interview with Lewis Coser, Wellfleet, Mass., July 9, 1985. B. Rosenberg, "Interview with Lewis Coser," p. 42. Coser, "The First 25 Years," pp. 3-4.
95. Howe, Margin of Hope , p. 235. Plastrik and Coser's contributions to "The First 25 Years," pp. 3-4. B. Rosenberg, "Interview with Lewis Coser" pp. 42-43. Interview with Lewis Coser, Wellfleet, Mass., July 9, 1985.
96. Letters from Irving Howe to Dwight Macdonald, March 1 and March 18, 1953, DMP.
97. Letter from Lewis Coser to Dwight Macdonald, November 16, 1953, DMP. For the circulation figure, see Dissent , Spring 1957, p. 98. Letter from Lewis Coser to Dwight Macdonald, December 4, 1955, DMP.
98. Two years later, in the Winter 1956 issue, the editorial board had added Emanuel Geltman and Bernard Rosenberg, and had dropped Harold Orlans. The most frequent contributors to Dissent between 1954 and 1960 (with the number of their contributions in parentheses) were Irving Howe (23), Lewis Coser (18), Bernard Rosenberg (10), Stanley Plastrik (10), Ben B. Seligman (8), Norman Mailer (7), H. Brand (7), William J. Newman (7), Michael Harrington (6), Harold Rosenberg (5), Henry Pachter (5), Michael Walzer (5), Helen Mears (5), Harvey Swados (5), C. Wright Mills (4), Paul Goodman (3), Travers Clement (3), and George Woodcock (2).
99. Howe, Margin of Hope , p. 237. Howe, "Forming Dissent," pp. 65-66.
100. Editors, "A Word to Our Readers," Dissent 1(1):3-4, Winter 1954.
101. Lewis Coser, "Young Man on the Make," Dissent 1(1):108, Winter 1954.
102. Irving Howe, "Does It Hurt When You Laugh?" Dissent 1(1):4-7, Winter 1954.
103. Glazer said that if he had not written this rejoinder, Elliot Cohen probably would have had someone else write it. In any case, according to Glazer, none of the other members of the Commentary staff would have
disagreed significantly with what he wrote. Letter from Nathan Glazer to the author, July 28, 1986. Howe, Margin of Hope , p. 236.
104. Nathan Glazer, "Philistine Leftism," Commentary 17(2):201-6, February 1954, pp. 201-2, 204.
105. Glazer, "Philistine Leftism," pp. 205, 202.
106. Interview with Nathan Glazer, Cambridge, Mass., May 21, 1985.
107. An example of the documentation of this change is Daniel Bell's The End of Ideology (1960; reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988). That majority of the New York intellectuals who became neoconservatives continued this chronicling effort through the 1980s. For an example of the dissenters' reaction against the affirmers' documentation of a changing America, see Irving Howe, "America, the Country and the Myth," Dissent 2(3):241-44, Summer 1955.
108. Contemporary Authors , first revision, vols. 5-8 (Detroit: Gale Research, 1969), p. 443. Unless otherwise cited, the information in this biographical section is drawn from Glazer's unpublished autobiographical manuscript, "From Socialism to Sociology," which he generously provided me.
109. Letter from Nathan Glazer to the author, July 28, 1986.
110. Interview with David Riesman, Cambridge, Mass., November 23, 1984.
111. Interview with Nathan Glazer, Cambridge, Mass., May 21, 1985.
112. Contemporary Authors , vols. 5-8, p. 443.
113. Letter from Nathan Glazer to the author, July 28, 1986.
114. Nathan Glazer, "Negroes and Jews: The New Challenge to Pluralism," Commentary 38(6):29-34, December 1964; and Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination: Ethnic Inequality and Public Policy (New York: Basic Books, 1975).
115. This intellectual concern for pluralism and diversity has also been called "cosmopolitanism." See David Hollinger, "Ethnic Diversity, Cosmopolitanism, and the Emergence of the American Liberal Intelligentsia," In the American Province (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985); and Terry Cooney, The Rise of the New York Intellectuals (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986).
116. Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination , pp. 4, 50-51, 75, 220.
117. AKJ, vol. 15, June 20, 1959.
118. Diana Trilling, "A Communist and His Ideals," Partisan Review 18:432-40, July-August 1951, pp. 434-35, 439-40.
119. Sidney Hook, "Our Country and Our Culture," pp. 569-70, 574.
120. Letter from Sidney Hook to Norman Thomas, June 24, 1954, Norman Thomas Papers.
121. Interview with Sidney Hook, Wardsboro, Vt., July 15, 1985.
122. Philip Rahv, "Our Country and Our Culture," pp. 304, 307-8.
123. Reinhold Niebuhr, "American Pride and Power," American Scholar 17:393-94, Autumn 1948. Reinhold Niebuhr, "The Sickness of American Culture," The Nation 166:267-70, March 6, 1948, p. 268.
124. Archibald MacLeish, "The Conquest of the United States," A Continuing Journey (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967), p. 59. The reflex MacLeish described was later called a "purely reactive independence" by Jonathan Arac. "They live in history," he argued, ''by their own repeated choice, as the 'anti-Stalinist' intellectuals, and this chosen negative independence continually acted to restrict their positive independence." Jonathan Arac, Critical Genealogies (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), p. 309.
125. Howe, World More Attractive , p. 261.
126. Interview with Lewis Coser, Wellfleet, Mass., July 9, 1985. Interview with Irving Howe, New York, June 6, 1985.
127. Stanley Plastrik, "The Specter of Neutralism," Dissent 1(2):165-71, Spring 1954. Editorial statement, Dissent , Winter 1956, inside of front cover. Lewis Coser, "The New Turn in Russia," Dissent 3(2):124-28, Spring 1956, pp. 124-26. Irving Howe, "Notes on the Russian Turn," Dissent 3(3):309-13, Summer 1956, pp. 309-10.
128. Irving Howe, "Russia and the Monthly Review ," Dissent 3(4):433-35, Fall 1956. See also Irving Howe, "The Choice of Comrades," Dissent 4(3):332-35, Summer 1957; and Lewis Coser, "Towards Dynamic Barbarism," Dissent 4(4):427-29, Fall 1957.
129. Howe, Margin of Hope , p. 205.
130. Harold Rosenberg, Discovering the Present (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), pp. 301-3. Letter from Sidney Hook to the author, July 22, 1985.
131. Irving Howe, "The Cold War and the West," Partisan Review 29:27-35, Winter 1962, pp. 28, 34-35.
132. H. Rosenberg, Discovering the Present , pp. 307-8.
133. Irving Howe, Steady Work , p. 247. For examples of the dissenters' criticism of Mills see Bernard Rosenberg, "Rebellious Orgmen & Tame Intellectuals," Dissent 5(2):119-24, Spring 1958; and Irving Howe, "C. Wright Mills' Program: Two Views," Dissent 6(2):191-96, Spring 1959, pp. 193-94.
134. C. Wright Mills, in Irving Howe and C. Wright Mills, "The Intellectuals and Russia," an exchange, Dissent 6(3):295-301, Summer 1959, pp. 295-97.
135. Howe, World More Attractive , pp. 263, 272. See editorial statement, inside of front cover, Dissent , Winter 1956. Howe, "Russia and the Monthly Review ," pp. 434-35; "The Choice of Comrades," p. 335; and "A New Political Atmosphere in America?" Dissent 6(1):5-8, Winter 1959, p. 7.
136. Lewis Coser and Irving Howe, "Images of Socialism," Dissent
1(2):122-38, Spring 1954, pp. 130, 132-34. Lewis Coser, "What Shall We Do?" Dissent 3(2):156-65, Spring 1956, p. 164.
137. Ben B. Seligman, "The Economics of Joseph Schumpeter," Dissent 1(4):370-84, Autumn 1954, pp. 370-74; and Seligman, "Keynesian Economics—A Critique," Dissent 3(1):51-67, Winter 1956, pp. 62-67.
138. Ben B. Seligman, "Marxian Economics Revisited," Dissent 5(4):342-52, Autumn 1958.
139. Ben B. Seligman, "Socialism Without Marx," Dissent 6(3):258-74, Summer 1959, pp. 258-66. For a review and treatment of the theory of market socialism and its American reception, see Neil Jumonville, "Market Socialism: The Theory and Its Critics," unpublished bachelor's thesis, Reed College, 1977, in the Reed College library. John Kenneth Galbraith's Affluent Society was not radical enough for Seligman, although he thought it represented a useful radical liberalism; see Seligman, "Where Do We Go from Here?'' Dissent 6(1):84-87, Winter 1959.
140. Seligman, "Socialism Without Marx," pp. 273-74.
141. The idea of market socialism originated in Austria in the 1890s with Friedrich von Wieser and his brother-in-law Eugen Bohm-Bawerk, and then was extended slightly by the Italian economists Vilfredo Pareto and Enrico Barone after 1908. But the first political economists to make it accessible in English were Mises, Hayek, and Schumpeter in the 1930s and 1940s. See Ludwig von Mises, Socialism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951); Friedrich Hayek, ed., Collectivist Economic Planning (London: Routledge, 1935); Hayek, Individualism and Economic Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948); and Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper, 1942). On the Austrian school of economics and its tie to the Chicago school, see Lewis Coser, Refugee Scholars in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), pp. 139-42.
142. Frank Knight, Freedom and Reform (New York: Harper, 1947), pp. 134-39. See also Henry Simons, Economic Policy for a Free Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948).
143. Henry Dickinson, Economics of Socialism (London: Oxford University Press, 1939); Oscar Lange, On the Economic Theory of Socialism , Benjamin Lippincott, ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1938).
144. Howe, Margin of Hope , pp. 238, 236.
145. Coser, "What Shall We Do?" pp. 156-63.
146. B. Rosenberg, "Rebellious Orgmen," p. 121.
147. Howe, "A New Political Atmosphere in America?" pp. 5-8.
148. Howe, World More Attractive , pp. 284-87.
149. Howe, World More Attractive , pp. 252-56, 258.
150. H. Rosenberg, Discovering the Present , pp. 168-69.
151. Granville Hicks, "Liberalism in the Fifties," The American Scholar 25(3):283-96, Summer 1956, p. 296.
152. Hook, "Our Country and Our Culture," pp. 573-74.
153. David Riesman, "Our Country and Our Culture," pp. 313-14.