5— Aeneas in Latium
171
1.
For details cf. F. Cauer,
Die
römische
Aeneassage
(Jahrb. Suppl. XV), al-
though this contains much with which I cannot agree. The author makes no attempt
to throw any light on the aims and methods that are peculiar to Virgil.
172
2.
In Cato, Lavinia seems to have played no part at all; Servius on 6.760 claims
that his account is based on Cato, but, as Jordan (
Prolegomena
XXVIIIf. following
Niebuhr) correctly argues, there is no truth in this. Cf. Servius auctus on 1.259,
where the
Historia
is cited for the same account. Cauer's attempt to rescue the
greater part of that account for Cato (op. cit. 117; see also n. 26, 116) fails com-
pletely; the only material that can be ascribed to Cato is that which corresponds with
the scholia on 4.620, to which Servius refers with
ut
supra
diximus
[as we have said
above].
173
3.
The narrative of Justin 43.1 is almost identical; in his version Lavinium is
founded only after the death of Turnus and Latinus. Appian's version has survived
only in short, unreliable excerpts (
Reg
. 1 fr. I.1), from which however it is clear that
continue
Aeneas was on good terms with Latinus and that it was only after his death that he
had to fight against Turnus and Mezentius.
4.
Thus Probus already noted that when the Latin army (which he imagines as
being inevitably duty-bound to unconditional obedience to its king) joins Turnus,
their action contradicts Latinus' refusal to fight (7.600): schol. Veron. on 9.368.
Servius' reply (cf. Georgii,
Die
antike
Aeneiskritik
n. 16 above, 137, 412) shows that
7.600 was the passage which he objected to, not the
regis
(
Latini
)
responsa
[replies
of the king (Latinus)] of 9.369 which according to the more complete version of
Servius was the reading
in
omnibus
bonis
[in all the good manuscripts]: in his reply
he takes no notice at all of this reading (which is certainly wrong in any case).
Moreover, it is clear that Virgil wished to motivate the appearance of the cavalry
which was demanded by his version of the situation; for Turnus (9.4) has certainly
left Ardea, with his foreign auxiliaries (Messapus, 9.27) and the
agrestes
Latini
[Latin country folk] (
Tyrrhidae
, 9.28); he has sent out a Rutulian cavalry division
under Volcens from Laurentum on a tour to mobilize the infantry of the cities
(367ff.); while these are getting into rank and file to march out, the Rutulians go on
ahead to their king to report to him.
176 5. As Servius rightly remarks on 12.31.
6.
Here, too, Virgil based his version on tradition: Faunus, who delivers an
oracle to Latinus in a dream, corresponds with


sius 1.57, commands Latinus, who is determined to fight Aeneas,



For their arrival would bring a great benefit to Latinus and an advantage that all the
original inhabitants would share]. Virgil puts particular emphasis on this, because it
helps us to understand how Latinus can suddenly offer his daughter to a stranger;
that is why he strengthens his motivation with the miraculous signs that lead Latinus
to consult the dream-oracle. Furthermore, I doubt whether such a thing as Faunus'
dream-oracle ever actually existed; it would have been the only trace of incubation
in Italy in early times, and in Virgil's account we can see the fusion of three
concepts: (1) the prophetic nymph, Albunea, (2) the voice of Faunus resounding in
the grove (95), (3) the

receive divine revelation], which is not linked with Faunus' prophecy anywhere else
except in Ovid, Fast . 4.649, whose account does not seem to me to be genuinely
Italian to any extent: the association of Somnus and Faunus is similar to that of
Hypnos and Asclepius, the ascetic practices borrowed from Greek ritual etc. Above
all, sleeping on the ground would only be intelligible in the case of an oracle of a
chthonic divinity: and Faunus was no such thing. Besides, as W. Buchmann, De
Numae regis Romanorum fabula (Diss. Leipzig, 1912) 42ff., has shown, the idea of
a prophetic dream, even without incubation, is alien to Roman religious belief.
7.
It is perhaps surprising that at the meeting of the council of the Latins Turnus'
opponent Drances (11.343ff.) makes no reference to the oracle, and even Latinus
does not mention it to Turnus before 12.27; this cannot be a deliberate concealment
after the clear statement at 7.102ff. We might infer that Virgil had simply forgotten
177 this motif during the intervening books: but this cannot be the case, as we can see if
continue
we compare
fatalem
Aenean
manifesto
numine
ferri
admonet
ira
deum
tumulique
ante
ora
recentes
(11.232) [the anger of the gods, witnessed by the freshly-made
grave-mounds before their eyes, already warned them that Aeneas was clearly by
divine warrant a man of destiny], with
hunc
illum
poscere
fata
et
reor
et
si
quid
veri
mens
augurat
opto
(7.272) ['it is my belief, and, if my intuition comes near to
divining the truth, it is also according to my wish that it is Aeneas to whom Fate is
pointing']: thus Latinus' original belief that the oracle referred to Aeneas is con-
firmed by the result of the battle
manifesto
numine
[clearly by divine warrant]; it
must therefore have been in doubt until then. In fact, Amata had interpreted Faunus'
words in such a way as to make them refer to Turnus (7.367f.), and the ambiguity of
the phrasing (which is not obvious in the oracle) makes it clear that Virgil had
envisaged this possibility from the start:
conubiis
Latinis
(7.96) [a Latin marriage-
union] can refer to Latins in a narrower or wider sense, so it may not include the
Rutulians; instead of an unambiguous phrase such as 'over the sea', or 'the foreign
suitor will come from Asia', the oracle says only
externi
generi
[suitors from
another land]. So I think in fact that Virgil felt that this was sufficient to justify not
introducing the oracle into that meeting of the council; his real reason was of course
technical and artistic, namely his desire to present the opposition between Drances
and Turnus in purely human terms, with no supernatural motivation. Another objec-
tion that has been raised is that Turnus is not told anything about the oracle until
shortly before his death, through the words of Latinus at 12.27, whereas according
to 7.102ff. it was generally known throughout Ausonia. However, I do not believe
that the words
sine
me
haec
haud
mollia
fatu
sublatis
aperire
dolis
,
simul
hoc
animo
hauri
['let me then speak plainly and tell you my thoughts, however painful they
may be to express; and do you take my meaning earnestly to heart'] are to be taken
as implying that Latinus was now telling Turnus something completely new; it
would be foolish to imagine that he would not have heard anything about the oracle
in all the discussions which must have taken place before the outbreak of the war.
Servius comments percipiently on
hoc
loco
intellegimus
Turnum
dolore
voluisse
in
aliqua
verba
prorumpere
(22) [in this passage we are aware that Turnus, because of
his grief, wants to break into speech], which is confirmed by
ut
primum
fari
potuit
sic
institit
ore
(47) [as soon as he could speak, he began to say]. Latinus points out to
Turnus that there are other distinguished Latin maidens and hints (
nec
non
aurum
-
que
animusque
Latino
est
['and besides, I, Latinus, have gold, and a generous
spirit']) that he himself will provide the dowry: no wonder that the noble youth is
furious. Latinus holds him back:
sine
me
haec
etc. ['Please let me speak to you quite
frankly for once'],
simul
hoc
animo
hauri
['and take this to heart'], and now he
states what he believed in the first place, and what he believes even more strongly
now after all his misfortunes: 'the gods did not permit me to take you as a son-in-
law; I tried to do it nevertheless - and you see the result. It is impossible to oppose
the marriage with Aeneas; it will happen sooner or later, whether your life is
sacrificed or not'.
179 8. 1245f.; cf. Geffcken, Timaios ' Geographie des Westens (n. 42 above, 93) 44.
182
9.
Compare, for example,
una
cum
gente
tot
annos
bella
gero
(1.47) ['I have
been making war for all these years on a single clan'] with
nil
linquere
inausum
quae
potui
infelix
,
quae
memet
in
omnia
verti
,
vincor
ab
Aenea
(7.308) ['after
continue
forcing myself in my failure to shrink from no humiliation, after leaving no means
untried, I am vanquished, and by Aeneas']. The piling up of rhetorical devices
indicates that her emotions are now stronger:
num
capti
potuere
capi?
num
incensa
cremavit
Troia
viros
etc. (7.295-6) ['Could they stay in the trap when it closed?
Could even Troy in flames burn up the Trojans? No'].
183
10.
See Wilamowitz, Euripides'
Herakles
I
2
(Berlin, 1895) 123. Lyssa is hated
by the gods, as are the Erinyes in Aeschylus (
Eum
. 350, 366); Virgil intensifies this
idea by making his Allecto hated even by Pluto and the sisters of Hell, 327f. The
184 reason given for this, besides her horrible appearance, is
tot
sese
vertit
in
ora
[so
many are the countenances which she assumes], which is precisely what she does in
the episodes that follow. That ability is generally ascribed to another spirit of hell,
Empusa, but cf. the invocation


Wess . (C. Wessely, Wiener Denkschrift 37 [1889] 2798).
185
11.
omnis
. . .
ardor
agit
nova
quaerere
tecta
(393) [every heart . . . now blazed with
the same passion to look for a new dwelling place]: cf.
Bacch
. 33-6;
deseruere
domos
(394) [they forsook their homes]: cf.
Bacch
. 217-20:



leaf-clad mountains] ( frondosis montibus [387] [on the leaf-clad mountains])

dances] ( lustrare choro [391] [around you she dances]): ipsa [ Amata ] inter . . .
medias . . . canit . . . torvumque repente clamat (397) [in the centre of them
Amata . . . sang . . . suddenly she roared like a beast]: cf. Bacch . 689:


the Bacchae, raised a cry]; capite orgia mecum (403) [take to the wild rites with
me]: cf. Bacch . 34:

ritual]; an even closer parallel is the expression

take up his wild rites] in the hypothesis to the tragedy. stimulis agit Bacchi (405)
[drove her by the goads of Bacchus] cf. Bacch . 119:

by Dionysos]. Admittedly most of these expressions will recur in more or less the
same form in any description of maenads.
12.
There have been attempts to explain the apparent contradiction by supposing
that at first Amata is pretending, and later Bacchus punishes her by really driving
her mad. But there is nothing in the text to support this; it would require at the very
least that we should be told at 405 that Bacchus is acting in conjunction with
Allecto.
13.
Wilamowitz,
Herakles
II
2
196. Also in Aeschylus'
Xantriae
Lyssa gave a
speech

sessed]. The transition from Bacchic ecstasy to true madness is of course a gradual,
uninterrupted process.
186
14.
In the denunciation of Hispala (Livy 39.13) it was alleged
viros
v
e
I
u
t
mente
capta
cum
iactatione
fanatica
corporis
vaticinari
;
matronas
Baccharum
habitu
crinibus
sparsis
cum
ardentibus
facibus
decurrere
ad
Tiberim
,
demissasque
in
aquam
faces
,
quia
vivum
sulphur
cum
calce
insit
,
integra
flamma
efferre
[men
were throwing themselves about like fanatics and uttering prophecies,
as
though
their minds were possessed; married women dressed as maenads, with their hair
continue
streaming out all dishevelled, were running off to the Tiber with blazing torches;
they plunged the torches into the water, and because there was live sulphur and lime
inside them, they were still alight when they pulled them out]: in other words, the
miracle was exposed as a conscious deception. So too a Christian denies that


furore mentito et sequestrata pectoris sanitate circumplicatis vos anguibus atque ut
vos plenos dei numine ac maiestate doceatis caprorum reclamantium viscera oribus
dissipatis [the Bacchanalia . . . in which you pretend to be mad and you entrust the
sanity of your hearts to the control of another; and then you let snakes wind them-
selves around you and, so that it looks as if you are possessed by the power and
majesty of a god, you tear open the flesh of goats with your teeth, and the goats
scream out against you].
15.
Stat.
Silv
. 2.7.124; various pieces of evidence, including sarcophagi, show
that the traditional version was generally known. The far-fetched theories of M.
Mayer,
Hermes
20 (1885) 123 may be ignored: maenadism seems to be 'totally
opposed to the duties and vocation of the female sex' : Rapp,
Rhein
.
Mus
. 27 (1872)
21. It is worth noting that in Virgil no unmarried girl other than Lavinia joins the
thiasos
; everywhere (393, 400, 580) he speaks specifically of
matres
. This corre-
sponds with historical examples of the Greek practice, which has also left its mark
on the descriptions of mythical
thiasoi
: Rapp,
art
.
cit
. n. 21, 12.
16.
Was Virgil thinking of the scene in the
Troades
where Cassandra brandishes
187 the torches


the marriage song for herself (308ff.)?
17.
The phrase used by Apollodorus 2.27 of the Proetides. It is characteristic of
Macrobius' authoritarian attitude that it is precisely the

queen and her women to which he took exception: regina de penetralibus reveren -
188 tiae matronalis educitur . . . bacchatur chorus quondam pudicus et orgia insana
celebrantur [the queen is lured out from the inner rooms where a respectable matron
should stay . . . her troop of women, hitherto modest, rave like bacchants, and cel-
ebrate crazy rites].
18.
That is what is meant by
postquam
visa
satis
primos
acuisse furores
c
o
n
s
i
-
l
i
u
m
q
u
e
omnemque
domum
vertisse
Latini
[and now, seeing that insanity was
afoot and that the edge which she had given it was keen enough, since she had
already contrived to overturn the
plan
, and the home of Latinus . . . ] at 406; this of
course does not refer to a real change of mind on the part of Latinus.
19.
Nevertheless, the phrase that follows,
placida
cum
nocte
iaceres
(427) [while
you are lying in night's kindly peace] would cause total confusion: for it would
betray the fact right at the beginning that the dream was a dream, whereas Turnus
proceeds to reply to the real Calybe. I regard Klouçek's emendation
iacerem
[while
I was lying] as self-evident.
189
20.
cura
tibi
divom
effigies
et
templa
tueri
:
bella
viri
pacemque
gerant
,
quis
bella
gerenda
[your responsibility is to watch over the temples of the gods and their
statues. It is for men to wage war and make peace: for it is for them to make war]:


the spindle . . . for war will be men's concern]. Only someone who had failed to continue
understand the point of the phrase
quis
bella
gerenda
[it is for them to make war]
would propose that it should be deleted; the expression is ambiguous, meaning first
'concern about war (and peace)' and also 'wage war': furthermore, it is only in
relation to this phrase that Allecto's final words
bella
manu
letumque
gero
[in my
hand I bear war and death] achieve their full effect, for they give it yet a third
meaning.
21.
So too in Aeschylus'
Xantriae
Hera appeared in the guise of a priestess (fr.
168 Nauck
2
).
190
22.
duri
agrestes
(504) [the hardy country-folk],
indomiti
agricolae
(521) [the
dogged farmers]. In order to understand the events as Virgil intended, it is in my
view important that we should dismiss from our minds all thoughts of the meek and
pious shepherds of the
Eclogues
and
Georgics
, and remember rather the suspicious,
xenophobic, coarse angry
rusticus
[rustic] of the real world, who resorts to throwing
stones or brandishing a sword at every insult, real or imagined (Cassius in Cic.
Ad
Fam
. 16.19.4:
scis
quo
modo
[
Pompeius
]
crudelitatem
virtutem
putet
;
scis
quam
se
semper
a
nobis
derisum
putet
;
vereor
ne
nos
r
u
s
t
i
c
e
gladio
velit

[You know how Pompey thinks cruelty is a virtue; you know how often he thinks
we have insulted him; I am afraid that he will want to answer our mockery with the
sword, like a countryman ]; this was a type that was certainly well known to Virgil
from his own observation and experience. Ribbeck has collected the testimonia on
the traditional characteristics of Greek and Roman farmers ('Agroikos',
Abh . d . sächs . Gesellsch , d . Wiss . 10.1 [1885]), and those that we have mentioned are
frequently referred to.
191
23.
By contrast, the rich Galaesus, the big landowner among the shepherds and
farmers, keeps his head and wants to sue for peace (535).
24.
Ovid may have written
Met
. 10.121ff.:
tu
pabula
cervum
ad
nova
,
tu
liquidi
ducebas
fontis
ad
undam
,
tu
modo
texebas
varios
per
cornua
flores
[you led the stag
to fresh pastures, you led it to the waters of the clear fountain; at times you would
weave a mixed garland of flowers for his antlers] with Virgil 488f. in mind: (Silvia)
mollibus
intexens
ornabat
cornua
sertis
pectebatque
ferum
puroque
in
fonte
lavabat
[wreathing his antlers with soft garlands to decorate him, and grooming him, wild
creature though he had been, and bathing him in pure water]: but the Greek original
must have had something very similar, and also certainly supplied Ovid with the
lines that immediately follow,
nunc
eques
in
tergo
residens
[now sitting, on his back
like a horseman] etc. Virgil has made the tame stag, originally sacred to the nymphs
(we should remember Artemis' sacred stag at Aulis), into a domestic pet and there-
fore has him fed in the house (
mensaeque
adsuetus
erili
[490] [regularly at the
master's table]): Ovid has probably preserved the original version here, when he
speaks of Cyparissus taking the stag out to graze.
193
25.
However, Virgil was also certainly influenced by the consideration that a
Fury should not be allowed to come into contact with the sanctuary. In this respect
he is correcting Ennius.
196
26.
ut
belli
signum
Laurenti
Turnus
ab
arce
extulit
,
et
rauco
strepuerunt
cornua
cantu
(8.1) [Turnus hoisted the war-flag on the Laurentine citadel, and trumpets
blared out their harsh music]: cf. Lersch,
Antiquitates
Virgilianae
(48). Apart from a
few useful observations on points of detail, this book is spoilt by the author's
continue
tendency to explain everything in Virgil by tracing it back to a Roman context and
saying virtually nothing about Homeric imitation.
27.
7.513, 519, 628, 637; 8.2; 9.394, 503; 11.192 (cf. 184 Tarchon), 424. Cf.
8.526 in connection with the sign from heaven which makes Aeneas decide to turn
to the Etruscans for help:
Tyrrhenus
que
tubae
mugire
per
aethera
clamor
[the
clarion note of an Etruscan trumpet seemed to bray across the sky].
28.
Naturally this was already remarked on in antiquity: scholiast on
Iliad
18.219.
197
29.
Virgil has only Italian cavalry divisions (
alae
) [Volscians 11.604, 868, Etrus-
cans 11.730, Arcadians 11.835]; as Servius (on 9.368) already observed, the 300
riders of Volcens correspond in number to the cavalry attached to an ancient Roman
legion.
198
30.
Similarly, in Book 10, Mezentius fights on foot at first, and only mounts his
horse when his wound makes it impossible for him to continue on foot; this leads to
the peculiar situation where Aeneas on foot fights against a mounted warrior
(10.883-94).
199
31.
On how Graf arrived at this conclusion from the iconographic tradition, in
contradistinction to the views of Welcker, Benndorf, Löschcke (
Bonner
Studien
255), see Pauly-Wissowa
RE
I 1780. Unfortunately we know nothing at all about the
Amazonis
of Domitius Marsus, not even whether it was available to Virgil.
32.
Compare for example, what Quintus of Smyrna, who depicts Penthesilea as a
rider, manages to do with this rewarding subject: Penthesilea mounts her horse,
1.666; she carries quiver and bow, 338; Achilles tries to pull the wounded Amazon
off her horse and pierces both horse and woman with his spear, 600; and that is all.
The rest of the battle is described just like any other. We are not even told whether
Penthesilea's twelve female companions are on horseback.
200
33.
We have an exactly analogous case in, for example,
Iliad
8, where Hector
descends from his chariot to meet Teucer (320) and soon afterwards (348) is back in
it again, without the poet having found it necessary to mention the obvious fact that
he had remounted. The phrase used of Camilla,
pedem
reportat
(764) [took to her
heels], is no more to be taken literally than
circuit
(761) [he moved around] or
subit
(763) [he moved nearer] when used of Arruns, who immediately
celeris
detorquet
habenas
(765) [swiftly guided his reins]. It hardly needs to be said that Camilla,
wearing no armour and protected only by a
parma
[small shield] is not making her
way on foot
medio
agmine
(762) [in the centre of the battle]. If we must be pedantic
we would do better to ask where Camilla gets a sword from (711), since we know
that she does not carry one herself, nor does anyone use one at any other point in the
whole cavalry battle.
34.
In Book 9 he rides to the enemy camp [see p. 160 above), but then naturally
proceeds to fight on foot, as in the attack on the camp at the beginning of Book 10.
However, when he is pursuing the phantom of Aeneas (10.645ff.), the poet says
nothing of his chariot: this sacrifice is imposed by the Homeric situation, for it
would have made no sense for Turnus to get down from his chariot before his
opponent was ready to fight, nor are we supposed to imagine Turnus in his chariot in
pursuit, and unsuccessful pursuit at that, of a phantom that moves on foot.
201 35. That is a striking detail; perhaps Virgil was thinking ( pace Aristarchus) of continue
Achilles' four horses in
Iliad
8.185; it is well known that no other
quadriga
appears
in Homeric battles. When Latinus (12.162) drives out in a four-horse chariot to
conclude the treaty, it is a royal privilege, which was reinterpreted by the Romans
and retained in the form of the triumphator's
quadriga
: thus (Dion. Hal. 2.34)
Romulus triumphs

that by mounting a four-horse chariot he might preserve the dignity befitting a king].
202
36.
Besides
hastile
[spear-shaft] (9.402; 10.795; 11.650 etc.) and the general
terms
telum
[weapon],
ferrum
[iron],
missile
[missile], he also has
spiculum
[pointed
weapon] (10.888; 11.676 etc.),
iaculum
[thrown weapon] (10.323, 342; 12.354 etc.),
lancea
(12.375) [lance],
cuspis
[spike] (10.484, 733; 11.691 etc.), and, like the
Homeric

(11.667) [pinewood], cornus [cornel cherry] (9.698; 12.267), robur (10.479) [oak],
cf. myrtus (7.817) [myrtle].
37. On this see the section on 'Composition' in Part II, ch. 4.
203 38. Marquardt, St . V . II 344.
204 39. Lersch op. cit. n. 26 above, 69, 186.
206
40.
Virgil generally based his similes on those in Greek epic, but the first simile
in the
Aeneid
(1.148), on which he lavishes even more artistic skill than usual, in
thrice three lines, is drawn from a Roman context (although even in this case there is
something similar in Homer:
Iliad
2.144). When he compares a stormy and a calm
sea with a rebellious and a pacified crowd, he is reversing a simile that was popular
in Rome: Cic.
pro
Cluentio
138:
intellegi
potuit
id
quod
saepe
dictum
est
:
ut
mare
,
quod
sua
natura
tranquillum
sit
,
ventorum
vi
agitari
atque
turbari
,
sic
populum
Romanum
sua
sponte
esse
placatum
,
hominum
seditiosorum
vocibus
ut
violen
-
tissimis
tempestatibus
concitari
[it was easy to understand what has frequently been
remarked: just as the sea, which is calm by nature, is made rough and turbulent by
the force of the winds, so the Roman people is naturally calm, but the speeches of
revolutionaries can start them up, like the most violent storms]. Cf. Preiswerk in
Iuvenes
dum
sumus
, Festschr. (Basel, 1907) 32 (he cites a simile from Demosthenes
Fals
.
Leg
. 19.136 which is not an exact parallel).
208
41.
In other cases where a death is not described but is left to the reader's
imagination, it is clear that the poet has hesitated to put the horror into words. Thus
209 in 2.526ff. he describes how Neoptolemus pursues Polites brandishing his spear and
trying to clutch him with his hand, then Polites collapses and meets his death: Virgil
passes over the fatal thrust in silence; nor at 2.225 does he say in so many words that
Laocoon is killed by the snakes; he passes over the fatal blow which Dido inflicts on
herself (above p. 105); and Palinurus does not say that he was murdered on the shore
by marauders (6.361) (see Norden
ad
loc
.). It would of course be out of place to
transfer this principle to descriptions of battle.
42. Similarly (3.286) he dedicates the shield of Abas to Apollo.
210
43.
immania
pondera
baltei
(10.496) [his heavy, massive swordbelt] on which
the foul deed of the Danaids is engraved in gold: its prototype is the
telamon
[sword-strap] of Hercules in
Odyssey
11.609ff. It is also called a
cingulum
(9.360;
12.942), but it must not be confused with the real
cingulum
militiae
[military belt]
which is worn around the waist: see 9.364; 12.941.
44. 10.531, 557, 592, 599, 897. Virgil has taken great care that, in the scene of continue
fighting before the death of Pallas (310-44), he does not behave in this way. At
211 10.517 Virgil makes Aeneas take eight of the enemy alive, so that he can sacrifice
them at Pallas' funeral-pyre (11.81); this has been criticized as an imitation of
Homer that is out of character with the
pietas
of Virgil's hero. But Virgil knew that
it had been an early Roman custom (Varro in Serv. on 3.67); moreover during his
own lifetime Augustus had sacrificed 300 Persian prisoners-of-war at Caesar's
funeral (V. Gardthausen,
Augustus
und
seine
Zeit
I [Leipzig, 1891] 209); surely he
would have had this in mind when he included this in his work?
45.
For the following cf. H. Nettleship,
Lectures
and
Essays
(Oxford, 1885)
108ff.
46.
sed
ea
animi
elatio
,
quae
cernitur
in
periculis
et
laboribus
,
si
iustitia
vacat
pugnatque
non
pro
salute
communi
sed
pro
suis
commodis
,
in
vitio
est
;
non
modo
enim
id
virtutis
non
est
,
sed
est
potius
immanitatis
omnem
humanitatem
repellentis
[but as for the elation of the spirits, which can be seen to drive a man through toils
and perils, if there is no just cause involved, and a man fights, not for the preserva-
tion of his people, but for his own advantage, then that is wrong; for not only is that
nothing to do with valour, but rather it is characteristic of outrageous behaviour that
denies every kind of human feeling] (Cic.
De
Off
. 1.19.62).
212 47.


are headstrong and eager in advance of danger, but at the moment of danger they
hold back; whereas brave men are keen in action, although quiet beforehand]
(Aristotle Eth . Nic . 3.10, 1116a7).
48.
'It is most remarkable how closely Virgil imitates Homer in the duel between
Aeneas and Turnus . . . it is modelled almost
verbatim
on the duel between Achilles
and Hector (
Iliad
22.248ff.) . . . . At the end Turnus (932f.) pleads with Aeneas for a
decent burial in almost the same words as Hector (
Iliad
22.337f.)': Cauer op. cit.
n. 1 above, 181. He has failed to perceive how great a difference there is here, and it
was precisely on his readers' familiarity with Hector's last words that Virgil was
relying in order that this contrast should achieve its maximum impact.
213
49.
Cato in Macrob.
Sat
. 3.5.10 (fr. 12P.). There is a rather different version in
Dionysius 1.65.
50. The motif comes from Apollonius where Idas says:




spear, which brings greater glory in battle to me than to any other man - indeed,
Zeus is less help to me than my spear - let it know that I shall suffer no painful
wound, nor will Idas fail to follow it up and gain a victory, not even if a god should
fight against him']; Idmon then reproaches him for

gods]: this contemptor divom [scorner of gods] too was later punished for his
arrogance.
51.
Another certain example is
nec
mortem
horremus
nec
divom
parcimus
ulli
(10.880) ['I have no horror of death, and set no value on any god']. More dubious is
Nunc
morere
,
ast
de
me
divom
pater
atque
hominum
rex
viderit
(743) ['Now die. As
for me, the Father of Gods and King of Men will decide']. As Servius correctly
continue
remarks, the fact that Mezentius speaks the words
subridens
[smiling], excludes the
possibility that Virgil carelessly allowed his
contemptor
deum
to lapse into pious
devotion at this point; but the interpretation transmitted by Servius '
viderit
utrum
Mezentio
possit
nocere
ille
quem
vos
deorum
et
hominum
creditis
esse
rectorem
'
['let that person whom you believe to be the ruler of gods and men see whether he
can harm Mezentius'] is perhaps too artificial. Still, there is, in my opinion, an
element of contempt in
viderit
, here as frequently elsewhere; this would define the
tone of
divom
pater
atque
hominum
rex
[the Father of Gods and King of Men] as 'let
him kill me - see if I care'.
215
52.
As we can deduce from Servius on 1.317, the story of Camilla's youth is
based in part on the tale of Harpalyce (see O. Crusius in Roscher I.1835; G. Knaack,
Rhein
.
Mus
. 49 [1894] 526-31, who however presses the comparison too far). Other
elements may be derived from a local Volscian legend (see now R. Ritter
De
Varrone
Vergilii
. . .
auctore
[Diss. Halle, 1901] 391ff.). However, Virgil is not com-
pletely successful in combining the character that he has derived from this source
with that of a Penthesilea: purple robe, golden hair-clasp and golden bow suit an
Amazon queen but not a virgin huntress who has grown up in the wild (11.570) and
has always lived there (843). Penthesilea rules over a nation of women: but how did
Camilla come by a bevy of companions-at-arms (655, 805, 820), when she had
acquired her unique character only because she had been brought up with her exiled
father in the loneliness of the forest? And how is it that she has become the leader of
her people, although her father, the Volscian king Metabus, had been driven out of
his country by his subjects, and forbidden to enter any of their cities (567)? On the
reason for this discrepancy see the section on 'Speech' in Part II, ch. 3.III.
53.
C
a
e
c
a
sequebatur
totumque
i
n
c
a
u
t
a
per
agmen
f
e
m
i
n
e
o
praedae
et
spoliorum
ardebat
amore
(781f.) [
blind
to all else, in a
girl
'
s
hot passion for
plundering those spoils she was ranging
heedlessly
about the battle-lines].
216
54.
It has been suggested that Virgil was reading
Iliad
10 again when he was
composing his own Book 9: Mnestheus' lionskin (306) is derived from
Iliad
10.177;
217 Ascanius' sword (303) from 255; Turnus' steed (269) from 322; the detail that
Rhamnes' sword-strap had been given in return for hospitality (361) from the leather
helmet given in return for hospitality in
Iliad
10.268; the reference in Nisus' prayer
to his father Hyrtacus (406) from the reference in Diomedes' prayer to his father
Tydeus (285); and do not the names Rhamnes, Remus and Rhoetus recall the name
of Rhesus? There is yet another echo: in the Ascanius episode the young bullock
with gilded horns which he promises to Jupiter (627ff.) is derived from Diomedes'
vow to Athena (294).
55.
It is only on Ascanius that Virgil's narrative (257ff.) dwells longer than
necessary; this is to enable us to hear about the
primitiae
[first fruits] which he
promises in the council before we hear about his
primitiae
in the actual battle
(590ff.). Aeneas' absence is used to good effect in both cases. This maintains the
childlike character of Ascanius, see above p. 128.
56.
The poet does not make them do this pointlessly, 'merely because Odysseus
and Diomedes had done it' in
Iliad
10 (F. Cauer op. cit. n. 1 above, 180), but for the
same reasons as in their case. Diomedes even has to be restrained by Athena from
slaughtering still more of the enemy, which would endanger both himself and his
continue
friend. Every ancient reader would have understood how he felt. And there is a great
218 difference between the lack of caution of inexperienced youths and the carelessness
of an experienced warrior like Diomedes. Nisus' ambition is not satisfied with a
single task. The poet has taken pains to prepare us for this (186ff.), and he has also
made sure that Nisus shall appear more level-headed than Euryalus (322, 354). If
Virgil had decided to provide an additional motive for the bloodbath by making
Nisus and Euryalus fight their way through the enemy camp, that would have been
unnecessary as well as incompatible with the facts: it cannot be deduced from
lato
te
limite
ducam
(323) ['I will lead you forward along a clear, broad lane'] nor from
via
facta
per
hostis
(356) ['our way through the foe is clear now']. Anyone who goes
through enemy lines has to hack his way through them with his sword; Nisus would
have thought it shameful to creep through without leaving any trace of his passage. I
am even more reluctant than usual to regard this as an

Virgil's part, for everything in this episode is motivated with special care, almost,
we might suppose, in deliberate contrast to the slapdash details which abound in
Iliad 10. Virgil has already told us about the friendship of Nisus and Euryalus in
Book 5 (pp. 126f. above) (and note the contrast!); it is from that book that we know
that Nisus is a fast runner, as he is here too (368); his successes with throwing the
spear (411, 417) are credible in the light of his passion for hunting (178, 407); and
this also explains his knowledge of the surrounding countryside (245). In the moon-
light Euryalus' helmet gleams and shows the way to Nisus, while the darkness of the
dense wood conceals him but conversely hinders Euryalus' escape (384). And how
can Nisus find him again in the wood? audit equos (394) [he heard horses]. The
author of Book 10 of the Iliad had had great difficulty in finding a plausible motive
for Diomedes and Odysseus to leave the camp, and it fits rather awkwardly into the
context. In this respect too, Virgil was no mere thoughtless imitator. We might find
it surprising that not one of Rhesus' Thracians woke during the bloodbath. Virgil
had forestalled any objection by introducing the detail that the soldiers are stretched
out in drunken sleep (316, 335, 350, cf. 165), and this has already been prepared for
by Turnus' words laeti bene gestis corpora rebus procurate viri (157) ['See to your
comfort, warriors, happy in the day's success'].
219
57.
However, in my opinion it is unlikely that Virgil and his audience would
have taken the same view of Nisus' action as we do. Nisus' fault lies in failing to
complete his mission despite Euryalus' death, and we would regard this as derelic-
tion of duty, although we might arrive at this verdict only after a certain amount of
reflection. To be carried away by passion is more characteristic of the Mediter-
ranean temperament than our own, but even we northerners hardly realize that in a
similar situation, the emotional scene when Max Piccolomini rides to his death in
Schiller's
Wallenstein
, it is even more flagrant dereliction of duty. Imagine Nisus in
some safe hiding-place watching his friend being killed, too sensible to attempt to
fight in vain against overwhelming odds, and going on to obey orders and complete
his mission - a Nisus who behaved like that would have been regarded as a charac-
ter lacking in warmth and lacking in love. Here is the verdict on this episode by a
modern writer who was Virgilian in spirit, Bernardin de St Pierre: 'Virgile a ren-
fermé dans une seule action les premiers devoirs de la vie sociale, que les moralistes
n'ont mis qu'en maximes isolées' [Virgil has enshrined in a single action the
continue
fundamental duties of social life, which moralists have only expressed in isolated
maxims] (
Oeuvres
10 [1826] 180).
220
58.
C. Robert,
Studien
zum
Ilias
(Berlin, 1901) 337, pointed out that grouping by
pairs is prevalent in the
aristeia
of Diomedes; the origin of this, as he rightly
observes, lies in the pairs, warrior and driver, in each chariot. It is the same in the
aristeia
of Agamemnon: in
Iliad
11.91ff. Agamemnon kills three pairs, including
two pairs of brothers; he is confronted by a fourth pair, Iphidamas and Coön, the
sons of Antenor, at 221ff. This continues at 310ff.: Diomedes and Odysseus form a
pair: they kill three pairs; Diomedes then wounds Hector, but is himself wounded by
Hector's brother Paris. At 420ff. Odysseus kills four men; then, with the pair of
brothers Charops and Socos, his score matches that of Agamemnon. Meanwhile, at
300ff. Hector kills nine men in three lines of verse, three per line, which is surely not
just coincidence. The number three plays a rôle in the
aristeia
of Patroclus: at
16.399ff. he kills first three single fighters, then three times he kills three together;
then at 684ff. he again kills three together three times, and immediately before his
death at 785 he three times kills nine. The deliberate crescendo is unmistakeable.
There is nothing like it in Books 13 and 14 (apart from the end of Book 14, 508ff.).
59.
Hellenistic poets certainly deliberately followed this principle in the case of
long lists of names. It is certainly clear for example in Tibullus' description of the
221 Golden Age (1.3.37ff.): first two pairs of lines about voyages, in the first of which
pinus
[ship] is the subject, in the second
navita
[sailor]; then a pair of lines on each
of the following topics: animal-breeding - the subjects are
taurus
[bull] and
equus
[horse]; securing one's property - the subjects are
domus
[house] and
lapis
[stone];
nutrition - honey and milk; and finally two pairs of lines each with four subjects,
unity and peace, war and sea-travel. Here the increasing compression reflects in-
creasing excitement.
223
60.
Although it has no significance for the course of the battle, it is significant
for the general purpose of Book 9, since it shows the ancestor of the Julian
gens
avenging the people's honour. The scornful speech of Numanus (9.598ff.) (which
also gives a picture of archaic Latin customs - modelled in fact on Spartan customs,
for according to learned Romans [Cato? ap. Servius on 8.638; but cf. Jordan
Prole
-
gomena
]) a distant Roman connection with the Sabines made



love of war, their plain life-style, and their austerity in all the activities of their lives]
(Dion. Hal. 2.49); cf. the old Lucanian principles of education in Justin 23.1.8,
quibus et Spartani [ liberos ] instituere soliti erant [by which the Spartans also were
accustomed to educate (their children)]) and the Trojans' situation is reminiscent of
the scornful speech of the Etruscan beneath the walls of the Roman camp in Livy
(2.45.3), which is certainly based on more detailed (poetic?) sources.
224
61.
This resembles an incident in the Punic War:
cum
refugientem
[
sc
.
Hanniba
-
lem
]
ad
urbem
Tauream
Claudius
sequeretur
,
patenti
hostium
portae
invectum
per
alteram
stupentibus
miraculo
hostibus
intactum
evasisse
[when Claudius followed
him (Hannibal) as he fled to the city of Taureas, he was carried in at one of the enemy
gates, which was open, and came out through another unscathed, and the enemy were
amazed at his miraculous feat], says Livy 23.46, on the authority of 'certain annals'.
break
62.
9.67ff. So that Turnus and his men can try to set fire to the ships without first
storming the camp, Virgil situates the fleet near the camp, but not defended by it,
and depicts it as protected on the landward side by a mere wall, not by a proper
defensible fortification. Drachmann,
Nord
.
tidskr
f
.
filol
14. (1905) 69 is right to
correct me by interpreting 9.69f. (
classem
quae
lateri
castrorum
adiuncta
latebat
,
aggeribus
saeptam
circum
et
fluvialibus
undis
[the fleet which lay hidden close
under the flank of the encampment, fenced on one side by an earth-pier built round
it, but elsewhere by nothing but the river waves]) in this sense. This also explains
225 why Turnus hopes that the attack on the fleet will lure the Trojans out from their
walls, and also why the men in the encampment cannot protect the fleet against fire.
The poet does not state the topographical reasons that caused this separation of the
fleet from the camp. After the Romans land at Aspis, Polybius (1.29) particularly
emphasizes that they begin the siege


a ditch and fence].
63.
But not, as some have believed, that they are already in the camp; on the
contrary, Cymodocea says that Turnus intends to prevent them from entering the
camp,
medias
illis
opponere
turmas
ne
castris
iungant
(239) ['to confront them
squarely with his own main squadrons before they can join the Trojan camp']; nor
do the Arcadians play any part in the fighting when they land; see n. 66 below.
64.
turmas
invasit
agrestis
Aeneas
,
omen
pugnae
stravitque
Latinos
(310)
[Aeneas charged against the levies of country-folk, a good augury for the fortune of
the fight, and he struck the Latins down]; Servius connects this with 8.7:
undique
cogunt
auxilia
et
latos
vastant
cultoribus
agros
[they mustered their levies from all
around, stripping fields of their cultivators over a wide area], but surely it refers to
the inadequate armour of Turnus' allies, e.g. the
legio
agrestis
(7.681) [levy of
countrymen] from Praeneste: 'Aeneas attacks them first, rightly believing that it is
here that he will be most successful, and so begin the battle with a good omen',
Brosin
ad
loc
.
226
65.
Aeneas kills two of the seven sons of Phorcus; the third son wounds Achates;
Virgil breaks off at this point, but we can see what is going to happen.
66.
The narrative suffers from lack of clarity at this point. The Arcadian cavalry
had been forced by the difficulty of the terrain to dismount, and they found them-
selves at a disadvantage because they were not accustomed to fighting on foot. So it
is obvious that they did not take part in the fighting at the ships: so much can be
deduced from the strongly emphasized phrase
parte
ex
alia
(362) [elsewhere on the
field], and from the contrast between the Arcadians and Turnus at 238f. But it
remains unclear whether Pallas, who has come by sea with Aeneas (190), sees the
Arcadian cavalry only from afar -
vidit
Latio
dare
terga
sequaci
(365) [he saw that
the Arcadians were turning in flight before the pursuing Latins], or whether he has
already joined up with them; in either case we ought to be told at some point or
other about his fighting his way through to them.
Vidit
[he saw] would appear to
support the former interpretation (particularly if we compare it with the passage
where Tarchon is trying to restore courage to his companions who have taken flight:
inter
caedes
cedentiaque
agmina
fertur
equo
[11.729] [he charged on horse-back
amid the carnage where the ranks were in retreat]), but the narrative that follows
continue
would appear to support the latter. Nor is the topography entirely clear. I confess
that I am as baffled by Brosin's attempt to explain it (in his note on 362) as I am by
Virgil.
228
67.
This corresponds very well with the picture which we have formed of Tar-
chon from his conduct in the battle at the ships (10.290), where he has no patience
for careful disembarkation of the troops, and orders his ships to be rowed straight
towards the beach, regardless of the danger of damaging them. The words with
which he encourages his comrades are reminiscent of Brasidas' words during the
landing at Pylos: he orders his sailors not to spare the ships,


them aground and disembark in any way possible, in order to gain control of the
men and of the position] (Thuc. 4.12). The Thucydides passage was famous as a
masterpiece of vivid description: Plut. De glor . Athen . 3, cf. Lucian De conscr . hist .
(How to write history) 49.
229
68.
Once Turnus has sent Idmon with the message to Aeneas, he goes into the
palace, calls for his horses, puts on his armour, takes up his shield and sword, and
finally brandishes his spear and utters threatening words -
totoque
ardentis
ab
ore
scintillae
absistunt
,
oculis
micat
acribus
ignis
(81-106) [fire glittered in his flashing
eyes, and all his face showed the fierce heat within, a heat to send sparks flying] etc.
All this is modelled on the scene of the arming of Achilles in
Iliad
19.364ff.; Virgil
does not even omit lines 365-8, which were rejected by Aristarchus as spurious, but
works them in at a suitable point (but without the gnashing of teeth,


schol. A. ad loc .). In fact, it is not in the least remarkable that Turnus, who has to go
to fight early the next morning, should try out his weapons the evening before (this
is Servius' explanation - it would be nice if Virgil had been explicit in the same way
here), and brandish his spear (at Apollonius 3.1262 Jason practises leaping and
brandishing his spear before battle), and it would certainly make sense to do so
while there was still time to make sure his equipment was in good order and to
remedy any faults. Furthermore, line 76 makes it quite clear that the encounter will
take place the next morning, which prevents the reader from making the false
assumption that this encounter will come immediately after line 112. (We should
also note how very different this is from the description of the arming of Turnus at
11.486.) Nevertheless, the final arming before the actual combat is so much more
important than these preliminary exercises that we must ask ourselves why Virgil
did not do the same as Homer and Apollonius and describe that moment. It seems
that he was more interested in the character of Turnus than in the factual details of
arming: on the eve of the duel, immediately after the decision has been made, he is
so consumed by raging lust for battle that he cannot wait to brandish his weapon
against the opponent he hates so much; in the morning, just before the fight, his
230 passion has ebbed away (see p. 167 above). Aeneas, by contrast, remains
unchanged.
69. See p. 167 above.
70.
So as to make this appear plausible, Virgil has avoided saying anything
earlier about the general feelings of the Latins, or their hatred of Turnus. Only
Turnus himself sees
sua
nunc
promissa
reposci
,
se
signari
oculis
(12.2) [that they
continue
were demanding that his spontaneous offer should now be made good, and they
were singling out him alone] - but who 'they' are is not stated. Previously, however,
it was the widows and orphans of the fallen Latins who had demanded that there
should be a duel (11.215); only Drances allied himself to their cause. Nothing at all
of this kind is ever said of the Rutulians.
71.
His intervention has been prepared for at 11.429, where Turnus reassures the
Latins after the news of Diomedes' refusal to ally himself with their cause:
at
Messapus
erit
felixque
Tolumnius
[sc.
auxilio
]
et
quos
tot
populi
misere
duces
['yet
Messapus will (sc. aid us), and fortunate Tolumnius too, and so will other chieftains
whom these many nations have sent]. That the
augur
Tolumnius is identical with
this
dux
[chieftain] Tolumnius ought never to have been doubted: compare Picus,
who was both augur and king, 7.187f. (cf. Cicero
De
Div
. 1.89), and Rhamnes,
rex
idem
et
regi
Turno
gratissimus
augur
(9.327) [he was himself a king, and also a
seer, whom King Turnus loved]; Tolumnius may be one of the princes allied to
Messapus. Turnus does not rely on him in vain, as we can see when he casts his
spear, but
felix
[fortunate] contains bitter dramatic irony, for Tolumnius is fortunate
in that his spear strikes home, but he loses his life as a result, 12.460.
232
72.
We have already discussed most of this. There is also the phrase
vulgi
variare
labantia
corda
(223) [the feelings of the
multitude
were changeful and
insecure]: the
vulgus
[multitude] is fickle and just as quickly moved to sudden anger
(11.451) as to sudden sympathy; again, Juturna appears in the semblance of Camers,
who is highly respected as a member of a distinquished family as well as for his
personal qualities; a further incitement is her appeal to the Latins' honour, love of
freedom, ambition, and inveterate hatred of the Etruscans.
233 73. The scheme is thus ABCBA.
234
74.
The poet often reminds us of them later in the narrative: 730, 744, 768, 918,
928. Cf. our comments on the funeral games, p. 131 above.
75.
coniectis
eminus
hastis
(711) [while still far apart, they cast their spears]: no
Homeric poet would have dared to conclude the essential first phase of the duel in
235 only three words, leaving us to deduce from the silence of the narrator that each
spear had missed its target.
76. On this see Part II, ch. 2.II.I Jupiter and Fate.
77.
Motivated in 739ff.:
postquam
arma
dei
ad
Volcania
ventum
est
mortalis
mucro
. . .
dissiluit
[but as soon as he faced instead divine weapons forged by Vulcan
himself, the mortal blade . . . flew into splinters]: we might suppose, at the first
stroke; but it was sound enough to start with:
crebros
ensibus
ictus
congeminant
(713) [they redoubled their sword-strokes and smote again].
break