1. For an analysis of the confrontation of modern and traditional solidarities and links, see Guerra, México , vol. 1, 58-245; and Fernando Escalante, Ciudadanos imaginarios (Mexico City, 1993), 21-53.

2. In January 1888 a commission, consisting of Carlos R. Ruiz, Luis Salazar, and José Ramírez, was appointed to prepare a budget (EXP, Box 4, Exp. 1). For the analysis of the personnel of the Mexican exhibit at the 1889 Paris fair, I am depending on archival evidence. However, both Godoy ( México en París ) and the BEMP reproduced

various documents. I compared the BEMP's and Godoy's evidence with my own findings in order to present the best possible information.

3. EXP, Box 1, Exp. 7.

4. EXP, Box 2, Exp. 12.

5. DO, 9 February 1888.

6. EXP, Box 4, Exp. 1, pp. 1-5.

7. This is close to the figures reproduced in México, Tesorería General de la Federación, Contaduría de la Federación: Cuenta Pública (Mexico City, 1889-1890), under the name Cuenta de egresos Número 102, Gastos para la exposición de París . According to this cuenta , the expenses were 328,024.74 pesos and the budget approved was 450,000.00 pesos.

8. The intermediary agent between Mexico and the Mexican Commission in France was Eduardo Santos y Cía. For cuentas and expenses see EXP, Box 13, Exps. 1, 2; Box 14, Exps. 1, 4; Box 17, Exp. 3; Box 18, Exps. 1, 3, 6; Box 12, Exp. 1; Box 16, Exp. 3.

9. Argentina was second, with 3.2 million francs, and the United States was third, with 1.125 million francs (RUP 9:360).

10. EXP, Box 2, Exp. 6.

11. Among them, Francisco Diaz Covarrubias (Mexican consul in Paris), Gustavo Baz (first secretary of the Mexican embassy in Paris), Antonio Mier y Celis, José Yves Limantour, Julio Limantour (attaché of the Mexican diplomatic mission in Paris), and Rafael de Zayas Enríquez. See Díaz Mimiaga's report, EXP, Box 12, Exp. 6, pp. 15a-16.

12. In fact, Santiago Rebull, a distinguished painter of classical subjects during the second half of the nineteenth century, was originally appointed chief in 1888, but he declined the offer, claiming bad health. See BEMP 1 (1888):282. See also Carta a Fomento , 21 January 1889, EXP, Box 2, Exp. 7.

13. EXP, Box 7, Exp. 9.

14. EXP, Box 5, Exp. 20.

15. EXP, Box 4, Exp. 26.

16. For instance, see C. Romero Rubio's lobbying in favor of publicist Salvador Quevedo y Zubieta in EXP, Box 3, Exp. 6.

17. EXP, Box 5, Exp. 19.

18. Others personalities that were part of the team were Dr. José D. Morales and inventor Maximino Río de la Loza (EXP, Box 6, Exp. 12).

19. His family ran a well-known candy business in Mexico. He published books, such as Estudio sobre las razas mexicanas (1885), Po è mes aztèques (1890), and Notes sur le Mexique (1910); he translated the works of Antonio Peñafiel and Rafael de Zayas En-ríquez for the 1889 exposition; and he was the editor of the Boletín de la Exposición Mexicana en París (1888-1891). In addition, he was a wealthy entrepreneur and a merchant, involved in the Cámara Francesa de Comercio de México, the Bank of London and Mexico, the Compañía Cigarrera Mexicana, the Cervecería Moctezuma, the Compaõía de las Fábricas de Papel San Rafael y Anexas, and, as agent, El Palacio de Hierro. See Alberto Maréa Carreño, "Augusto Genin: In Memoriam," in Semblanzas , vol. 2 (Mexico City, n.d.), 252-69; and Luis Everaert Dubernard, México 1900 (Mexico City, 1994), which includes some data taken from Genin's personal papers.

20. EXP, Box 6, Exp. 12.

21. México, Secretaréa de Fomento, Reglamento económico (Mexico City, 1989), 4.

22. EXP, Box 5, Exp. 24.

23. DO, 27 June 1888, Jalisco's exhibition. See also Presidential Address to the 14th Congress, DO, 17 September 1888; and DO, 25 October 1888, Morelos's exhibition.

24. DO, 13 September 1888.

25. Article 12 of the Mexican Reglamento económico . Originally, it was also established that each group had to write a report on its activities.

26. The principal receivers of Mexican material were the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris and the British Library of the British Museum in London. Special collections of medical, chemical, biological, and ethnographic material were sent to the Pasteur Institute, the University of London, the Austrian Museum, and the Trocadero Museum in Paris. The University of Texas at Austin and the University of California at Berkeley (especially the Bancroft Library) also contain numerous examples of these materials.

27. See the annotated circular signed by Gilberto Crespo, Ferrari Pérez, and Manuel Flores in March 1888. In the notes at the margins, it is possible to observe the way in which the work of producing the image of the modern nation was divided (EXP, Box 1, Exp. 18, pp. 8-9).

28. DO, 21 September 1888.

29. See, for instance, the letter to Pacheco by the community of Cuautempan, Puebla in EXP, Box 8, Exp. 17.

30. García Cubas, Étude , v.

31. Annotated circular in EXP, Box 1, Exp. 18, pp. 8-9.

32. Annotated circular in ibid.

33. Ibid.

34. Bodo von Glümer, Cuadro estadístico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos: Formado con datos oficiales y par disposición de la Secretaría de Estado y del Despacho de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City, 1882).

35. EXP, Box 1, Exp. 18, pp. 68-81.

36. See DO, 21 March 1889; documents reproduced in Godoy, México en París , 184-90.

37. For instance, there is evidence of the shipment of at least 744 samples of Maria y Campos's book in the steamship Ville Marseille (EXP, Box 8, Exp. 29).

38. Mexico published its own catalogue in French and Spanish. See France, Ministère du Commerce et de 1'Industrie, Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1889. Direction Générale de l'Exposition. Adjudication du Catalogue Général (Paris, 1888); and Mé-xico, Exposition Universelle International de Paris 1889, Catalogue officiel de l'Exposition de la République Mexicaine (Paris, 1889).

39. Velasco won a prize at the 1876 Philadelphia exhibit. At the 1878 Paris exposition he also displayed his paintings (at the Spanish section, since Mexico did not join that fair). See Fausto Ramírez, "Acotaciones iconográficas a la evolución de episodios y localidades en los paisajes de José María Velasco," in José María Velasco: Homenaje , ed. Fausto Ramírez (Mexico City, 1989), 43. See also chapter 7.

40. Notwithstanding, Pedro Calvo, Johann Moritz Rugendas, and Daniel Thomas Egerton preceded Velasco in landscape painting in Mexico. See Xavier Moyssén, "El dibujo de José María Velasco," in ibid., 8.

39. Velasco won a prize at the 1876 Philadelphia exhibit. At the 1878 Paris exposition he also displayed his paintings (at the Spanish section, since Mexico did not join that fair). See Fausto Ramírez, "Acotaciones iconográficas a la evolución de episodios y localidades en los paisajes de José María Velasco," in José María Velasco: Homenaje , ed. Fausto Ramírez (Mexico City, 1989), 43. See also chapter 7.

40. Notwithstanding, Pedro Calvo, Johann Moritz Rugendas, and Daniel Thomas Egerton preceded Velasco in landscape painting in Mexico. See Xavier Moyssén, "El dibujo de José María Velasco," in ibid., 8.

41. See Luis Islas García, Velasco: Pintor Cristiano (Mexico City, 1932); and the various essays on Velasco in Ramírez, Josí María Velasco: Homenaje . While I was revising this manuscript, Mexico City's Museo Nacional de Arte published a handsome two-volume catalogue of a national homage to Velasco. These volumes include important data on Velasco's life and significance in Mexican art. See México, Museo Nacional de Arte, Homenaje nacional a José María Velasco (1840-1912 ), 2 vols. (Mexico City, 1993).

42. EXP, Box 2, Exp. 14.

43. EXP, Box 6, Exp. 12.

44. See Acta de sesión , 18 May 1889, EXP, Box 12, Exp. 3.

45. Velasco exhibited paintings in both the railroad section and the industry section. See México, Catalogue officiel de l'Exposition de la République Mexicaine . See also two long reports on the Mexican exhibition: one by Léon Cahun in Le Phare de la Loire , "L'Exposition Universelle. Le Mexique" (20 June 1889); and the article in La Presse Industrielle , 4 July 1889, reproduced in Godoy, México en París , 270-75. In January 1889 the DO announced that Mexico City's delegation sent Alberto Herrera's canvas of the Cuauhtémoc monument (DO, 25 January 1889); Gabriel Guerra proposed to send a replica of Cuauhtémoc. See BEMP 1 (1888):154-55; and, for the contract to make this replica for 950 pesos in January 1888, see BEMP 1 (1888):212-14. Another sculptor, Gabriel Guerra, also exhibited a bust of Porfirio Díaz.

46. DO, 17 April 1888.

47. DO, 17 April 1888.

48. See Sierra's allusion to his 1900 visit to the world's fair, in his 1910 welcome speech for the participants in the Congress of Americanists, held in Mexico City (Sierra, Obras completas [Mexico City, 1948], vol. 5, 253-56). For a description of Sierra's fascination with the 1900 Paris fair, see Claude Dumas, Justo Sierra y el México de su tiempo, 1848-1912 , vol. 2 (Mexico City, 1986), 20, 34-35.

49. See, for example, "Chronique de l'Exposition," Le Temps , 24 August 1889.

50. DO, 17 April 1888.

51. Zárate, in a document reproduced in Godoy, México en París , 104.

52. For an analysis of the role played by statistics in the general modern image, see chapter 8.

53. Reproduced in Godoy, Míxico en París , 103-6.

54. See RUP 6 (Groups 5 and 7).

55. See UIA-Díaz 842, Box 18, L. 40, Catálogo de la colección mineral del General Porfirio Díaz .

56. According to Argentine reports of mining exhibits, Mexico's mining display was especially impressive and included gold, copper, silver, and onyx. See Argentina, Exposition Universelle, 1889, Argentine Republic: Colección de informes reunidos , vol. 1 (Paris, 1890), 130-31. This report also included Mexican companies per state, with value of production (p. 131).

57. Ignacio Mariscal's letter to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, reproduced in México, Secretaría de Fomento, Documentos relativos a la venta de tabacos mexicanos en la Exposición Internacional de París, en 1889 (Mexico City, 1889), 14.

58. DO, 4 February 1890.

59. Mexico was second only to France in the total of products exhibited: France had 27,201; Mexico, 3,206.

60. See Gibbs's study of Porfirian propaganda in the United States between 1877 and 1878: William E. Gibbs, "Díaz' Executive Agents and United States Foreign Policy," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 20, 2 (1978):165-89.

61. In this regard, see Paolo Riguzzi, "México próspero: Las dimensiones de la imagen nacional en el porfiriato," Histarias , no. 20 (1988):137-57.

62. EXP, Box 8, Exp. 19. About Godoy's propaganda books on Mexico's presence at world's fairs, see chapter 3.

63. About this book, see also EXP, Box 11, Exp. 7, in which Godoy requested economic support for its project. See Godoy, México en París .

64. EXP, Box 8, Exp. 19; Ireneo Paz, Los hombres prominentes de México , 4 vols. (Mexico City, 1888). A French journalist, J. L. Regagnón, was paid to write the French part, and José Francisco Godoy prepared the English part.

65. Paz invited Riva Palacio to add his name by paying a "subscription" of 50 pesos. See Paz's letter to Vicente Riva Palacio, 1 September 1887, Vicente Riva Palacio's letters, Genaro García Collection, University of Texas at Austin. For data about Paz's book, see Juan Bautista Iguiniz, Bibliografía biográfica mexicana (Mexico City, 1969). For the prize awarded to Paz's book, see México, Secretaría de Fomento, Lista de los premios y recompensas obtenidos por México en la Exposición de París de 1889 (Mexico City, 1891).

66. EXP, Box 8, Exp. 19. See Manuel de Olaguibel, Memoria para una bibliografía científica de México en el siglo XIX (Mexico City, 1889).

67. Some 10,000 copies of each issue were published, at a cost of 600 francs per issue. See Actas de sesión , 15 July 1889, EXP, Box 12, Exp. 3.

68. The book, which appeared in 1889, was published in Paris by Imprimerie et Librairie Centrales. Bianconi was financed by the Mexican government, though I have not been able to determine the total amount of money he received. For specific payments to Bianconi, see Sesión , 11 May 1889, EXP, Box 12, Exp. 3; BEMP 3 (1889):794-96; and BEMP 5 (1889):476.

69. BEMP 1 (1888):182-85.

70. E. Levasseur, ed., Le Mexique au début du XXe siècle , 2 vols. (Paris, 1904).

71. See Reclus, L'Homme et la terre .

72. There are few bibliographical data about this character, who played a role in various Mexican international displays. He seems to have been extremely well connected in international propaganda circles. Justo Sierra refers to him as El Barón and as " enfant du pavé flâneur, " who authored humorous texts. He argued that Gostkowski went from bohemian to entrepreneur. See the article in El Federalista , 20 June 1874, reproduced in Justo Sierra, Obras completas , vol. 3, ed. Agustín Yáñez (Mexico City, 1948), 177-80.

73. EXP, Box 12, Exp. 2.

74. See EXP, Box 15, Exp. 2, for various clippings. He received 1,561 francs.

75. Gustave Gostkowski, Au Mexique (Paris, 1900).

76. Ramón Fernández wrote to Porfirio Díaz that Díaz Mimiaga did not handle the propaganda well. He believed that the money disbursed in this regard was " mal-gastado. " See UIA-Díaz, L. 14, C. 25, 12492-505.

77. See Diaz Mimiaga's report in EXP, Box 12, Exp. 6.

78. Ibid.

79. EXP, Box 9, Exp. 10.

80. See Paz, Los hombres prominentes de México . It has not been easy to find bibliographical data on Diaz Mimiaga. See José C. Valadés, El Porfirismo , vol. 2 (Mexico City, 1987), 157; and Luis G. Zorrilla, Relaciones de México con la República de Centro América y con Guatemala (Mexico City, 1984), 495. All of these authors point out Diaz Mimiaga's difficult personality.

81. Díaz Mimiaga, 1849-1891, according to Manuel Mestre Ghigliazza, Efemérides biográficas (Mexico City, 1945).

82. EXP, Box 6, Exp. 8.

83. See Acta de sesión , 8 May 1889. Díaz Mimiaga complained that Bablot sent the minutes without his signature and censorship (EXP, Box 12, Exp. 3). See also Acta de sesión , 3 June 1889, EXP, Box 12, Exp. 3.

84. See Bablot's full report, copy to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, in which he explained his motivations for arranging a scientific meeting with Latin American specialists: Letter, 19 August 1889, SRE Le. 1104, pp. 276-88.

85. See Informe detallado por orden de fechas, relativo a diversas trabajos, principalmente de escultura y fundición artística, y que rinde el que subscribe . . . ," Ramón Fernández, 21 November 1889, IPBA, Box 5, Exp. 18. In this regard, see also Fausto Ramírez, "Dioses, héroes y reyes mexicanos en Paris 1889," in Historia, leyendas y mitos de México (Mexico City, 1988), 215.

86. For Contreras's plans with French engineer Colibert, and his petition for 220,000 francs, see BEMP 1 (1888):188-94.

87. EXP, Box 13, Exp. 4, PP. 8-101. All of the quotations concerning the conflict were taken from this document.

88. Manuel Gutiérrez Najera, "Alfredo Bablot," in Obras críticas y literarias , vol. 1 (Mexico City, 1959), 468-69. This was a panegyric for Bablot, who died in 1894.

89. See Justo Sierra's account of his travels, Viajes en Tierra Yankee, en la Europa Latina , in Justo Sierra, Obras completas , vol. 6, ed. José Luis Martinez (Mexico City, 1948), 15-61.