1. Fung, Military Dimension , 210-16.

2. Ibid. See also Edmund S. K. Fung, "Military Subversion in the Chinese Revolution of 1911," Modern Asian Studies 9, no. 1 (Feb. 1975): 103-23; Josef Fass, "The Role of the New-Style Army in the 1911 Revolution in China," Archiv Orientalni 30 (1962): 183-91; and Yoshihiro Hatano, "The New Armies," in China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900 - 1913 , ed. Mary Clabaugh Wright (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 365-82.

1. Fung, Military Dimension , 210-16.

2. Ibid. See also Edmund S. K. Fung, "Military Subversion in the Chinese Revolution of 1911," Modern Asian Studies 9, no. 1 (Feb. 1975): 103-23; Josef Fass, "The Role of the New-Style Army in the 1911 Revolution in China," Archiv Orientalni 30 (1962): 183-91; and Yoshihiro Hatano, "The New Armies," in China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900 - 1913 , ed. Mary Clabaugh Wright (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 365-82.

3. Hatano, 370, 382.

4. Esherick, 146; Fung, "Military Subversion," 109; Fung, Military Dimension , 6.

5. Eric A. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977), 32-37.

6. Huntington, Political Order , 193-94; Amos Perlmutter, The Military and Politics in Modern Times (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 99-100.

7. Zhang Zhidong, 45 juan : 14a; 120 juan : 12a-14b.

8. For example, besides ninety students selected by examination for entry into the 1909 class of the Hunan military primary school, thirty positions were reserved for the children of official families or outstanding New Army soldiers, with most actually going to the relatives of officials. Dai Fengxiang, Yang Chuanqing, and Chen Pengnan, "Hunan lujun xiaoxue" [The Hunan military primary school], HWZ, 2: 60-61.

9. Da Qing Guangxu xinfaling [New laws of Guangxu of the great Qing dynasty] (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1908), 14 ce : 2a.

10. Hatano, 373.

11. Da Qing Guangxu xinfaling , 14 ce : 58b-59a. break

12. Zhang Zhidong, 57 juan : 28a.

13. For example, in 1898 Zhang proposed that literacy be required of all recruits for a new Western-trained unit he hoped to establish. Zhang Zhidong, 49 juan : 14a. Likewise, literacy was set as a requirement in recruiting standards promulgated by Zhang in 1904. Zhang Zhidong, 62 juan : 26a-26b. Memoirs of Hubei New Army soldiers also report Zhang's emphasis on literacy as a basic requirement for all recruits. See, e.g., Qi Chucai, 95.

14. Zhang Zhidong, 57 juan : 28a.

15. Hatano, 374.

16. Morton Fried, "Military Status in Chinese Society," American Journal of Sociology 57 (Jan. 1952): 347-55.

17. Marianne Bastid-Bruguiere, "Currents of Social Change," in The Cambridge History of China , vol. 11, Late Ch'ing, 1800 - 1911 , part 2, ed. Denis Twitchett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 539-40.

18. For example, in a 1904 ranking of military and civil positions a brigadier-general was placed equal in status to a provincial governor. Powell, 185. A 1909 table of precedence for military and civil officials in Fung, Military Dimension , 88, shows a similar ranking.

19. Zhao Zongpo and Xia Jufang, Wu Luzhen (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1982), 13. For example, Zhao Hengti, a Hunan graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy, received a juren degree upon his return. Ou Jinlin, "Zhao Hengti zhuan" [A biography of Zhao Hengti] (unpublished manuscript, Changsha, 1982), 2.

20. Powell, 150, 183. Zhang sent three grandsons to Japanese military academies.

21. Zhang Zhidong, 49 juan : 12b-13a.

22. Fung, Military Dimension , 23.

23. Zhang Zhidong, 57 juan : 33a-34a.

24. See Fung, Military Dimension , 89-99, for a discussion of the development of late Qing militarist thought.

25. Shi Taojun, "Liushinian de wo" [My sixty years], HLZ, 1981, no. 2: 24.

26. Just like Shi, Zhao Hengti, later Hunan military governor, cited nationalism as the main reason he gave up his original plans to study at a Japanese normal school in order to enroll in a military academy. Zhao Hengti, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 1. Another case can be seen with He Guoguang, an important Hubei military figure and eventually commander of the Guomindang's National Revolutionary 4th Army. Under the influence of a progressive instructor at a civil school in Shanghai, He decided that "to serve the country, it was necessary to continue

join the army." In 1904 He therefore enrolled in Sichuan's Military Primary School. He Guoguang, Bashi zishu [A biography at eighty] (n.p., 1964), 2-4.

27. Zhu Zhisan, "Xinhai Wuchang qiyi qianhou ji" [A record of the period before and after the 1911 Wuchang uprising], XSHL, 3: 149. Wan Yaohuang, "Canjia xinhai Wuchang shouyi ji" [A record of my participation in the 1911 Wuchang uprising], Hubei wenxian 21 (Oct. 10, 1971): 5. Xiong Bingkun, "Xinhai Hubei Wuchang shouyi shiqian yundong zhi jingguo ji linshi fannan zhi zhushu" [A description of the course of the movement preceding the 1911 Wuchang uprising in Hubei and of the immediate rebellion], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 1 ce (1961): 272.

28. Fung, Military Dimension , 24-25; Zhu Zhisan, 149; Wan Yaohuang, "Canjia," 5. One example of this was the case of Wan Yaohuang, an important Hubei military figure of the Republican period. Born into a scholar-official family in Hubei, Wan first received a classical education and then entered a modern-style civil primary school. In 1907, his family could no longer afford the tuition for this school and he enlisted in the Hubei New Army. He was then selected from the ranks as a government student in Hubei's Military Primary School. Wan later graduated from the Baoding Military Academy. Wan Yaohuang, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 1, parts 5, 7.

29. "Zuotan xinhai shouyi" [Discussing the 1911 uprising], XSHL, 1: 2. For a similar observation, see Chen Xiaofen, "Xinhai Wuchang shouyi huiyi" [Memoir of the 1911 Wuchang uprising], XSHL, 1: 70.

30. Li Pinxian, Li Pinxian huiyilu [The memoirs of Li Pinxian] (Taibei: Zhongwai tushu chubanshe, 1975), 3-4. After graduating from the Guangxi Military Primary School, Li went on to the Hubei Military Secondary School, and finally graduated from the Baoding Military Academy in 1914. Li served in both the Guangxi and Hunan armies and later became commander of the National Revolutionary 8th Army in the 1926 Northern Expedition.

31. Zhang Zhidong, 120 juan : 17a-17b.

32. Dai,Yang, and Chen, 60-61.

33. Ernest Young, The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977), 31; Fung, Military Dimension , 76. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 13-51, has also shown the predominantly elite backgrounds of officers in the late Qing Yunnan New Army.

34. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 69, for example, notes that this recruitment policy was followed in Guizhou but not in Yunnan, where officers were recruited from the literati but soldiers continued to be drawn from the peasantry. Yunnan seems to have been an exception continue

in this regard, particularly in the southern provinces. Edward Rhoads has also noted a high educational level among New Army soldiers in Guangdong Province. Edward J.M. Rhoads, China's Republican Revolution: The Case of Kwangtung, 1895 - 1913 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 190.

35. Chen Xiaofen, 70.

36. Mao Changran, "Changsha jiushiersui renrui Mao Shujun xiansheng xingshu" [A brief biography of Changsha's ninety-two-year-old gentleman, Mr. Mao Shujun], Hunan wenxian [Hunan documents] 8 (Apr. 1970): 65.

37. Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865 - 1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986).

38. Lucian W. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries , ed. John J. Johnson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), 77-78.

39. One example was Cai E, a Hunan-born military officer who gained fame leading Yunnan's New Army in support of the 1911 Revolution and against Yuan Shikai's imperial plans in 1916. Cai originally studied under the reformer Liang Qichao in Changsha. After following Liang into exile in Japan after the suppression of the Hundred Days' Reform, Cai joined other disillusioned reformers in an abortive 1900 uprising in Hubei led by Tang Caichang. After this failure, Cai returned to Japan, where he began military studies. In 1904 Cai graduated from Japan's Army Officers' Academy and was posted to Yunnan's New Army. Howard L. Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967-71), 3: 287.

40. Esherick, 19; Powell, 236.

41. Zhao and Xia, 1-25.

42. Chün-tu Hsüeh, Huang Hsing and the Chinese Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), 10.

43. Guo Fengming, "Qingmo minchu lujun xuexiao jiaoyu (1896-1916)" [Late Qing and early Republican military school education (1896-1916)] (Ph.D. diss., Zhongguo wenhua xuexiao, 1974), 432. Guo provides a detailed discussion of the patriotic and revolutionary activities of military students (pp. 432-55).

44. Zhao and Xia, 24-36; Zhu Hezhong, "Ouzhou Tongmenghui jishi" [A record of the facts of the European Tongmenghui], XGHL, 6: 3. For a discussion of Wu's reformist leanings, see Ernest P. Young, "The Reformer as a Conspirator: Liang Ch'i-ch'iao and the 1911 Revolution," in Approaches to Modern Chinese History , ed. Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), 251-57. break

45. Jiang Zuobin, Jiang Zuobin huiyilu [The memoirs of Jiang Zuobin] (Taibei: Zhuanji wenxue chubanshe, 1967), 29-30. Li Pinxian, 6, also notes the importance of Japanese-trained instructors in spreading revolutionary ideas in Guangxi's Military Primary School.

46. Dai, Yang, and Chen, 62.

47. "Zuotan," 3.

48. Li Jianhou, "Wuchang shouyi qianhou yishi baze" [Recollections of eight events from before and after the Wuchang uprising], XGHL, 2: 80-81; Xie Shiqin, "Shugong suibi" [Jottings by Shugong], JSZ, 25: 494.

49. Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang shouyiji [A record of the Wuchang uprising] (Wuchang: Hubei tongzhiguan, 1947), 4a-4b; Zhang Nanxian, Hubei geming zhizhilu [The known record of the revolution in Hubei] (1945; Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1946), 55; Zhang Yukun, "Wenxueshe Wuchang shouyi jishi" [A record of the facts of the Literary Society's uprising in Wuchang], in Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao xuanji [Selected materials on China's modern history], ed. Yang Song and Deng Liqun (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1954), 618-19.

50. See, e.g., Fung, Military Dimension , 119-44; or Esherick, 150-58. In Chinese, see Zhang Yufa, Qingji de geming tuanti [Revolutionary organizations of the Qing period] (Taibei: Zhongguo yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1975), 540-617.

51. Fan Hongxun, "Rizhihui" [The Society for the Daily Increase in Knowledge], XSHL, 1: 79.

52. Yang Yuru, Xinhai geming xianzhuji [A first account of the 1911 Revolution] (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1958), 18; Li Lianfang, 12a. Many revolutionary soldiers felt that civilians were less disciplined and thus more likely to attract official attention to revolutionary activities. See, e.g., Li Liuru, Liushinian de bianqian [Changes in the past sixty years] (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 1962), 1: 143-46. This source was written as a "historical novel," but Li Liuru was an active participant in Hubei's early revolutionary organizations. His accounts of discussions among revolutionary activists, although no doubt not accurate as verbatim records, probably reflect their real concerns.

53. Xiong Bingkun, "Xinhai," 275.

54. Li Lianfang, 10a-10b; Zhang Yukun, 624-25; Li Liuru, Liushinian de bianqian , 1: 145-46.

55. Li Lianfang, 12a; Zhang Nanxian, 152; Wan Yaohuang, "Canjia," 6.

56. For a history of this society in English, see Edmund Fung's "The Kung-chin-hui: A Late Ch'ing Revolutionary Society," Journal of Oriental Studies 11, no. 2 (July 1973): 193-206. Also see Esherick, 153-58; and Zhang Yufa, 617-56.

57. Hu Zushun, Wuchang kaiguo shilu [A factual record of the continue

Wuchang founding of the Republic at Wuchang] (Wuchang: Jiuhua yinshuguan, 1948), 1: 12a-13a, 17a-18a; Li Baizhen, "Gongjinhui cong chengli dao Wuchang qiyi qianxi de huodong" [The activities of the Forward Together Society from its founding to the eve of the Wuchang uprising], XGHL, 1: 506.

58. Li Baizhen, 514-19.

59. Zhang Yukun, 639, gives the highest estimate of Literature Society membership at five thousand men. A more realistic estimate might be the figure of three thousand given in a newspaper account shortly after the revolution. Xinhai geming [The 1911 Revolution], ed. Zhongguo shixuehui [Chinese Historical Association] (Shanghai:Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1957), 5: 4. Sources generally agree on a figure of around two thousand members for the Forward Together Society. See Guo Jisheng, "Xinhai geming qianhou wode jingli" [My experience before and after the 1911 Revolution], XSHL, 1: 96; and Wan Hongjie, "Xinhai geming yunniang shiqi de huiyi" [A memoir of the period of ferment of the 1911 Revolution], XSHL, 1: 125. A combination of these figures gives a range of five to seven thousand men as the total membership of these two societies. A lower figure of four to six thousand New Army members makes some allowance for the civilian membership of the Forward Together Society and for the fact, noted by Guo Jisheng, that many men were members of both organizations.

60. Liu Fenghan, "Lun xinjun yu xinhai geming" [A discussion of the New Army and the 1911 Revolution], Hubei wenxian 73 (Oct. 10, 1984): 15.

61. Wen Chuheng, "Xinhai geming shijian ji" [A record of the practice of the 1911 Revolution], XSHL, 1: 52.

62. Li Lianfang, 6a-6b.

63. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Changsha" [Changsha before and after the 1911 Revolution], Hunan wenxian 9, no. 3 (July 1981): 59-60; Xie Jieseng and Wen Fei, "Hunan xinhai guangfu shilue" [A biographical sketch of Hunan's 1911 recovery], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce (1962): 8-10; "Guangfu Changsha zhi huiyi" [Meetings called for Changsha's recovery], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce , 13.

64. Yu Shao, "Hunan guangfu ji sishijiu biao yuan-E" [Hunan's recovery and the 49th Regiment's aid to Hubei], XGHL, 2: 159.

65. Yan Youfu, "Huiyi Chen Zuoxin" [Remembering Chen Zuoxin], HWZ, 3: 188-89, 194-96. According to one account, Chen claimed to have joined the Tongmenghui in 1906. Lu Ying, "Xinhai geming Hunan guangfu huiyi suoji" [A fragmented memoir of Hunan's recovery in the 1911 Revolution], HLZ, 1958, no. 1: 126. However, some Tongmenghui members noted that Chen was not a member of any revolutionary organization. See, e.g., Zou Yongcheng, continue

"Zou Yongcheng huiyilu" [Memoirs of Zou Yongcheng], JSZ, 1956, no. 3: 102. Yan Youfu, "Huiyi Chen Zuoxin," 197, notes that Chen was not above making exaggerated claims of connections to top Tongmenghui leadership to add to his authority. His claim of Tongmenghui membership might fit into this category. There is little question that Chen considered himself an adherent of the Tongmenghui, even if he was not formally enrolled.

66. Yu Shao, 160; Zou Yongcheng, 102.

67. Yu Shao, 160.

68. Xie and Wen, 8-12; "Guangfu Changsha," 17-18; Zou Yongcheng, 95-96.

69. Zou Yongcheng, 95.

70. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming," 60.

71. Zou Yongcheng, 96.

72. Xie and Wen, 10.

73. Lu Ying, 121-22; Xie and Wen, 11-12.

74. See esp. chs. 4 and 5 in Esherick.

75. The uprising was originally planned for October 6, but a lack of preparations and official precautions forced a delay. Li Lianfang, 73b-74b. Sources differ on the alternate date set for the uprising. See Li Shiyue, Xinhai geming shiqi lianghu diqu de geming yundong [The revolutionary movement in the Hunan-Hubei area during the era of the 1911 Revolution] (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1957), 68-69.

76. Yang Yuru, 54-60; Xiong Bingkun, "Wuchang qiyi tan" [A discussion of the Wuchang uprising], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 5: 86-88.

77. For an English account of the Wuchang uprising, see Vidya Prakash Dutt, "The First Week of Revolution: The Wuchang Uprising," in Wright, 391-404. A more detailed account, including information on the Hanyang and Hankou uprisings, is given in He Juefei and Feng Tianyu, Xinhai Wuchang shouyi shi [A history of the 1911 Wuchang uprising] (Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1985), 179-208.

78. Shao Baichang, 17-20.

79. For details on the course of the revolution in different Hubei localities, see He and Feng, 339-75.

80. Ibid., 354-57.

79. For details on the course of the revolution in different Hubei localities, see He and Feng, 339-75.

80. Ibid., 354-57.

81. Yang Yuru, 71-77; Xinhai geming shiliao [Historical materials on the 1911 Revolution], ed. Zhang Guogan (Shanghai: Longmen lianhe shuju, 1958), 60-65.

82. He Xifan received a brigade commander's position as a reward for his defection. Yang Yuru, 63; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 76-77; Xinhai Wuchang shouyi renwu zhuan [Biographies of personalities from the 1911 Wuchang uprising], ed. He Juefei (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1982), 2: 655. break

83. A list of seventeen lower officers (mainly company or platoon commanders) who joined the revolt in its first days is given in Cao Yabo, Wuchang geming zhenshi [True history of the Wuchang revolution] (Shanghai: Shanghai zhonghua shuju, 1930), 2: 79. Examples of higher officers who hid or fled during the uprising but returned to accept positions in the revolutionary army or government include the 8th Division regiment commanders Yang Kaijia and Zhang Jingliang and battalion commanders Du Xijun and Jiang Mingjing. Wu Xinghan, "Wuchang qiyi sanri ji" [Three-day record of the Wuchang uprising], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 5: 84; He Juefei, 2: 645, 654, 659.

84. Xiong Bingkun, "Wuchang," 88, 91; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 71-72, 74-75; Yang Yuru, 62.

85. Xiong Bingkun, "Wuchang," 94; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 77.

86. Cao Yabo, 2: 35-36. Attending this meeting with Tang were both vice presidents of the Provincial Assembly, as well as several other assemblymen. Hu Zushun, 1: 45a.

87. Cao Yabo, 2: 36; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 82-83; Yang Yuru, 71-72.

88. Xie Shiqin, 492; Cao Yabo, 2: 14.

89. Hu Zushun, 1: 43b-44a; Li Zhongguang, "Huiyi wo fu Li Yuanhong er san shi" [Remembering two or three things about my father, Li Yuanhong], XGHL, 6: 303.

90. Hu Zongduo, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 1B.

91. Wan Hongjie, "Xinhai geming," 126; Hu Zushun, 1: 44a.

92. Li's ability to make a good impression on foreigners can be seen in an interview with Li shortly after the revolution reported in Edwin J. Dingle, China's Revolution, 1911 - 1912: A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War (1912; New York: Haskell House, 1972), 3-46.

93. The reasons for Li's selection as Hubei's military governor have been a point of historical controversy. The interpretation followed by most Chinese historians in the past, influenced by later revolutionary antagonism to Li, saw Li as the candidate of constitutionalists, who supported him in a plot to prevent the establishment of revolutionary power. More recent studies have concluded that revolutionary support was equally or more important in his selection. See, e.g., Esherick, 182-89; Lin Zengping, "Li Yuanhong yu Wuchang shouyi" [Li Yuanhong and the Wuchang uprising], Jianghan luntan [Jianghan Forum], 1981, no. 4 (Apr. 1981): 92-97; and Pi Mingxiu, "Li Yuanhong yu Wuchang shouyi" [Li Yuanhong and the Wuchang uprising], in Xinhai geming lunwenji [Collected essays on the 1911 Revolution], ed. Wuhan shifan xueyuan lishixi [History department, continue

Wuhan Normal College] (Wuhan: Wuhan shifan xueyuan, 1981), 299-314.

94. Cao Yabo, 2: 33-35, 69, 80-82. Delegations of support from civilian leaders seemed to have the most positive effect on Li's decision. See Li Guoyong, "Li Guoyong zishu" [Autobiography of Li Guoyong], JSZ, 1961, no. 1: 499-500.

95. For the texts of proclamations issued under Li's name, see Cao Yabo, 2: 45-68.

96. Shen Yunlong, Li Yuanhong pingzhuan [A critical biography of Li Yuanhong] (Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1972), 15.

97. Zhang Zhiben, "Liu Gong, Li Yuanhong—xinhai shouyi zhi yi" [Liu Gong, Li Yuanhong—a remembrance of the 1911 uprising], Zhongwai zazhi [China-West magazine] 12, no. 4 (Oct. 1972): 6; Yang Yuru, 75, 80; Hu Zushun, 1: 45a; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 90.

98. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai Hunan guangfu de pianduan huiyi" [A partial memoir of Hunan's 1911 recovery], HWZ, 1: 107; Yang Yuru, 35-36.

99. Deng Jiesong, "Xinhai geming zai Hunan suojian" [Events witnessed in the 1911 Revolution in Hunan], XGHL, 2: 204; Yu Shao, 161.

100. Only one battalion and one company out of Hunan's six infantry battalions were left in the Changsha area, along with engineering and artillery battalions and transportation and cavalry companies. Ten Patrol and Defense battalions were called to Changsha to replace the transferred units. October 21 orders for the removal of the New Army artillery battalion, and the continuing arrivals of Patrol and Defense forces, hastened the decision for an immediate uprising. Yu Shao, 160-62; Xie Jieseng, 13; "Guangfu Changsha," 19.

101. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 108-9; Xie Jieseng, 14.

102. Zixuzi [Tang Qianyi], "Xiangshi ji" [A record of Hunan affairs], in Su Kanshi et al., Hunan fanzheng zhuiji [A reminiscence of Hunan's return to righteousness] (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1981), 63.

103. Peng Chuheng, "Hunan guangfu yundong shimo ji" [A complete record of Hunan's revolutionary movement], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce , 4; Zixuzi, 62-63.

104. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 110-11; Zhou Zhenlin, "Tan Yankai tongzhi Hunan shimo" [Tan Yankai's rule over Hunan from beginning to end], HWZ, 2: 2.

105. Zou Yongcheng, 103-6; "Guangfu Changsha," 19-20; Xie Jieseng, 14-15.

106. Zixuzi, 75; Yu Shao, 161-63; Xie Jieseng, 15.

107. Yu Shao, 163-64; Deng Jiesong, 204-5. break

108. Peng Chuheng, 6; Yu Shao, 165; Guo Xiaocheng, "Hunan guangfu jishi" [A record of Hunan's recovery], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 6: 136-37.

109. Some participants of this meeting considered asking Tan to serve as military governor before the uprising, and soon after the uprising revolutionary proclamations appeared under Tan's name. Zixuzi, 64-65. According to one account, Tan declined a New Army nomination for the military governor's post before this meeting. Guo Xiaocheng, 136.

110. Yu Shao, 165. Within the Forward Together Society Jiao's right to Hunan's military governorship was agreed upon as early as 1907. Li Baizhen, 503. For a biography of Jiao Dafeng, see Feng Ziyou, "Hunan dudu Jiao Dafeng" [Hunan's military governor Jiao Dafeng], in Feng Ziyou, Geming yishi [Reminiscences of the revolution] (Chongqing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1943-45), 2: 280-86.

111. Zou Yongcheng, 109.

112. Zixuzi, 65-66; Yu Shao, 165.

113. Zhou Zhenlin, 2-3; Yu Shao, 167; Deng Jiesong, 207; Zixuzi, 66-67.

114. Yan Youfu, "Guanyu Jiao Dafeng er san shi" [Two or three things concerning Jiao Dafeng], XGHL, 2: 212-13; Deng Jiesong, 207; Zhou Zhenlin, 3.

115. Esherick, 178.

116. Esherick, 177-78, 204-6, 212-15.

117. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 113-15; Su Kanshi, "Hunan fanzheng zhuiji" [A reminiscence of Hunan's return to righteousness], in Su Kanshi, Hunan , 15. According to the senate's charter, all orders issued by the military governor required approval by the senate before implementation. While the military governor could return legislation proposed by the senate for further discussion, he was required to implement this legislation if it again passed the senate with a simple majority. The senate's charter and a list of its members can be found in ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce , 29-30.

118. Tan Renfeng, Shisou paici [The verses of Shisou] (Lanzhou: Gansu renmin chubanshe, 1983), 113-14; Zixuzi, 68-69; Yang Shiji, Xinhai geming qianhou Hunan shishi [A factual history of Hunan before and after the 1911 Revolution] (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1958), 202-4.

119. The main leaders of the conspiracy have usually been identified as Chen Binghuan, former vice president of the Provincial Assembly; Huang Zhongji, the younger brother of the slain Huang Zhonghao; and Xiang Ruicong, the Japanese-educated commander of the New Army's artillery battalion. Zou Yongcheng, 114; Zhou Zhenlin, 3; Yang Shiji, 200. break

120. Yang Shiji, 204-5.

121. Liu Wenjin provided Jiao's introduction to revolutionaries in the Hunan army, and was influential in persuading them to accept his leadership. Xie Jieseng, 12-13.

122. Yu Shao, 165, 167.

123. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming," 62. Yang Shiji, 200. According to one account, Jiao agreed to promote Mei to brigade commander, but only under a division commander whose original rank before the uprising had been beneath Mei's. Mei found this too demeaning and demanded an independent brigade commander's position, which Jiao refused. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 118.

124. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming," 62.

125. Zou Yongcheng, 114; Feng Ziyou, 284.

126. Zou Yongcheng, 115-16; Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 116-17; Feng Ziyou, 284-85.

127. Despite the promotion he had received from Jiao Dafeng, Yu Qinyi was closely tied to the faction that supported Tan Yankai for military governor. Before Jiao's assassination Yu had co-sponsored a proposal to hold new elections for the military governor's post. When Mei Xing approached Yu with the idea of the assassination, Yu gave neither his approval nor his disapproval, an ambiguity that Mei took as tacit agreement. Zixuzi, 68-69.

128. Cao Yabo, 2: 214.

129. Cao Yabo, 2: 214-15; Zixuzi, 69; Guo Xiaocheng, 139.

130. HJDJ, 296.

131. Huang Muru, "Xinhai Xiangxi guangfu jingguo" [The course of West Hunan's 1911 recovery], HWZ, 1: 129-35.

132. Zixuzi, 71-72.

133. Huntington, Political Order , 194.