1. 1. For depiction of Khomeini as a "socialistic" radical, see E. Kedourie, "Crisis and Revolution in Modern Islam," Times Literary Supplement, 19-25 May 1989; H. Enayat, "Iran: Khumayni's Concept of the `Guardianship of the Juristconsult,''' in Islam in the Political Process, ed. J. Piscatori (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 160-80; R. Savory, "Ex Oriente Nebula," in Ideology and Power in the Middle East, ed. P. Chelkowski and R. Pranger (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988), pp. 339-64; and N. Calder, "Accommodation and Revolution in Imami Shi ^c i Jurisprudence," Middle Eastern Studies 18, no. 1 (Jan. 1982): 3-20.

2. 2. Khomeini, Kashf al-Asrar, pp. 181-82, 229-30, 282, 289-91.

3. 3. Ibid., p. 259.

4. 4. Ibid., pp. 266-67.

5. 5. Y. Richard, "Shari ^c at Sangalaji: A Reformist Theologian," in Authority and Political Culture in Shi ^c ism, ed. S. Arjomand (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), p. 160.

6. 6. R. Khomeini, Towzih al-Masa'el (Questions clarified) (Tehran: N.p., 1978), p. 133.

7. 7. Ibid., p. 408.

8. 8. Khomeini, Velayat-e Faqih, p. 52.

9. 9. Ruhani, Nahzat-e Imam Khomeini, vol. 2, p. 272.

10. 10. R. Khomeini, sermon at Large Mosque in Qom, reprinted in Front for the Liberation of the Iranian People, Khomeini va Jonbesh, p. 9.

11. 11. Ibid., pp. 30-31.

12. 12. Ruhani, Nahzat-e Imam Khomeini, vol. 2, p. 217.

13. 13. Ibid., p. 701.

14. 14. Tehran University Publication Center, Mosahebeh-ha-ye Imam Khomeini, p. 303.

15. 15. R. Khomeini, "Announcement against Anarchy," Ettela ^c at, 12 Dec. 1979.

16. 16. R. Khomeini, speech on major conflicts, Ettela ^c at, 7 July 1979.

17. 17. R. Khomeini, speech to the Islamic judges, Ettela ^c at, 16 Oct. 1979.

18. 18. R. Khomeini, "The People Do Not Want an Oppressive Government," Ettela ^c at, 30 Sept. 1979.

19. 19. R. Khomeini, "The Blood of the Martyrs," Ettela ^c at, 29 Dec. 1980.

20. 20. R. Khomeini, speech to provincial governors, Ettela ^c at, 7 Dec. 1980.

21. 21. R. Khomeini, "On Spreading the Revolution," Ettela ^c at, 23 Mar. 1980.

22. 22. R. Khomeini, speech to the Tehran guilds, Ettela ^c at, 17 Jan. 1981.

23. 23. R. Khomeini, speech to the municipal political-ideological leaders, Ettela ^c at, 24 Feb. 1981.

24. 24. R. Khomeini, "Eight-Point Declaration," Ettela ^c at, 16 Dec. 1981.

25. 25. R. Khomeini, speech, Iran Times, 13 Aug. 1982.

26. 26. R. Khomeini, "The Government Stands Firm," Ettela ^c at, 31 Jan. 1982.

27. 27. R. Khomeini, speech, Iran Times, 24 Dec. 1982.

28. 28. R. Khomeini, "If We Want Islam, We Must Preserve This Republic," Tehran Times, 14 Apr. 1982.

29. 29. A. Khomeini, "The Complete Text of Imam Khomeini's Last Will and Political Testament," Kayhan-e Hava'i, 14 June 1989.

30. 30. M. Beheshti, "Islam and Private Property," reprinted in Kayhan-e Hava'i, 4 July-1 Aug. 1990.

31. 31. Special Issue for the Memory of Martyr-Teacher Morteza Motahhari, Ettela ^c at, 2 May 1984.

32. 32. M. Motahhari, Jahanbeni-ye Islami (Islam's world out-

look) (Albany, Calif.: Muslim Student Association in America Press, 1980), vols. 1-3. See also A. Abu al-Hoseyni, Shahid Motahhari (The martyr Motahhari) (Qom: Howzieh-e ^c Elmieh-e Qom Press, 1984).

33. 33. R. Khomeini, speech, Ettela ^c at, 20 July 1983. See also "Interview with Imam Khomeini," Jomhuri-ye Islami, 2 Jan. 1980.

34. 34. For the links between private property, natural law, and political liberalism, see C. Macpherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).

35. 35. Khomeini, Velayat-e Faqih, pp. 26-35, 45-46, 180-81.

36. 36. I. Berlin, The Crooked Timber of Humanity: Chapters in the History of Ideas (New York: Knopf, 1991).

37. 37. A. Moussavi, "A New Interpretation of the Theory of Velayat-e Faqih," pp. 101-7.

38. 38. S. Ossowski, Class Structure in Social Consciousness (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), pp. 38-53.

39. 39. Khomeini, Kashf al-Asrar, p. 255. See also Ruhani, Nahzat-e Imam Khomeini, vol. 1, pp. 656, 724.

40. 40. Khomeini, Towzih al-Masa'el, pp. 131, 334.

41. 41. Ibid., p. 11.

42. 42. Ruhani, Nahzat-e Imam Khomeini, vol. 1, p. 742.

43. 43. For a compilation of Khomeini's 1970-82 speeches using such imagery, see "The Oppressors and the Oppressed," Ettela ^c at, 15 Feb.-23 Apr. 1983.

44. 44. Khomeini, Velayat-e Faqih, pp. 42-43.

45. 45. R. Khomeini, "The People Do Not Want an Oppressive Government," Ettela ^c at, 30 Sept. 1979.

46. 46. Ossowski, Class Structure in Social Consciousness, pp. 19-37.

47. 47. Front for the Liberation of the Iranian People, Khomeini va Jonbesh; Ruhani, Nahzat-e Imam Khomeini, vol. 1, pp. 316-18, 413, 417, 459, 656; vol. 2, p. 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 243, 598, 607-8; Khomeini, Velayat-e Faqih, pp. 6-7, 38, 175.

48. 48. R. Khomeini, "I Want to Take from the Foreigners and the Rich and Give to the Poor," Ettela ^c at, 19 June 1979.

49. 49. R. Khomeini, speech to the Islamic Student Association, Ettela ^c at, 28 June 1979.

50. 50. R. Khomeini, speech to Kuwaiti visitors, Ettela ^c at, 26 Aug. 1979.

51. 51. Vajdani, Sarguzashtha-ye Vezhah, vols. 1-6.

52. 52. After a brief stay in Qom, Khomeini returned to Tehran and spent the last nine years of his life in a fortress-like house in one of the more expensive northern suburbs.

53. 53. R. Khomeini, "The Report Card on Jews Differs from That on the Zionists," Ettela ^c at, 11 May 1979.

54. 54. Ibid.

55. 55. R. Khomeini, "We Need a Spiritual Revolution in Iran," Ettela ^c at, 19 July 1979.

56. 56. R. Khomeini, speech to bazaaris and factory owners, Ettela ^c at, 7 July 1979.

57. 57. R. Khomeini, speech to clerics from Qom," Kayhan-e Hava'i, 15 May 1985.

58. 58. R. Khomeini, speech, Jomhuri-ye Islami, 12 Feb. 1982.

59. 59. R. Khomeini, "The State Must Help the People," Kayhan-e Hava'i, 5 Sept. 1984.

60. 60. R. Khomeini, speech on the anniversary of the 1963 uprising, Iran Times, 20 June 1982.

61. 61. R. Khomeini, speech for the parliamentary elections, Iran Times, 2 Jan. 1984.

62. 62. A. Rafsanjani, Friday sermon, Kayhan-e Hava'i, 22 Apr. 1987.

63. 63. For diverse uses of the term, see S. Shafi ^c i, "Who Is a Mostazaf?" Kayhan, 26 July 1986.

64. 64. R. Khomeini, speech to the parliamentary deputies, Ettela ^c at, 9 Feb. 1982.

65. 65. R. Khomeini, speeches, Ettela ^c at, 10 Jan. 1980, 16 Mar. 1980, 26 Apr. 1980.

66. 66. R. Khomeini, speech to government officials, Ettela ^c at, 25 Jan. 1984.

67. 67. R. Khomeini, speech to Tehran merchants and guildsmen, Ettela ^c at, 17 Jan. 1981.

68. 68. A. Khamenei, speech, Iran Times, 18 Dec. 1988.

69. 69. Khomeini, Kashf al-Asrar, pp. 181-82; see also idem, Velayat-e Faqih, pp. 32-34, 46.

70. 70. R. Khomeini, speech, Ettela ^c at, 26 Mar. 1983.

71. 71. R. Khomeini, speech, Iran Times, 31 Aug. 1984.

72. 72. R. Khomeini, "The State Must Let the People Participate in Trade, Industry, and Agriculture," Kayhan-e Hava'i, 5 Sept. 1984.

73. 73. R. Khomeini, speech, Ettela ^c at, 3 Jan. 1984.

74. 74. R. Khomeini, speech to Tehran merchants and guildsmen, Ettela ^c at, 17 Jan. 1981.

75. 75. R. Khomeini, speech to bazaaris and factory owners, Ettela ^c at, 7 July 1979.

76. 76. R. Khomeini, "Government Is an Absolute Authority Entrusted by Divinity to the Prophet," Kayhan-e Hava'i, 19 Jan. 1988.

77. 77. Liberation Movement, Velayat-e Motlaqeh-e Faqih (The jurist's absolute guardianship) (Tehran: Liberation Movement Press, 1988).

78. 78. Khomeini, Velayat-e Faqih, p. 52.

79. 79. For the Sunni concept of public interest, see M. Kamali, The Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 267-81.

80. 80. Khomeini, Vasiyatnameh-e Elahi va Siyasi, p. 7.